1621 
F41 

.1     Ferr 

.o£_  l 

the  rural  V 


l  nis  douk  is  uuc  un  me  iasi 
date  stamped  below 


JUL  6 

JUL  1  5  T§32 
TUL  2  6  1932 

MAY  2* 


THE  RURAL  HIGH  SCHOOL 


JOINT  COMMITTEE  ON  RURAL 
SCHOOLS 

State  Grange 

G.  W.  DUNN  MRS.  F.  GATES 

G.  C.  McNINCH 

Department  of  Education 

F.  B.  GILBERT  R.  P.  SNYDER 

G.  M.  WILEY 

Dairymen's  League 

E.  R.  EASTMAN,  Secretary  ALBERT  MANNING 

N.  F.  WEBB 


Farm  Bureau  Federation 
h.  c.  Mckenzie,  vice-chairman        w.  g.  Mcintosh 

C.  S.  POST  H.  G.  REED 


State  College  of  Agriculture 

J.  E.  BUTTERWORTH  P.  J.  KRUSE 

G.  A.  WORKS,  Chairman 

Home  Bureau  Federation 

MRS.  M.  E.  ARMSTRONG  MRS.  A.  E.  BRIGDEN 

MRS.  EDWARD  YOUNG 

State  Teachers'  Association 

J.  D.  JONES  MYRTLE  E.  MacDONALD 

W.  E.  PIERCE 


Committee  on  Direction 

G.  A.  WORKS,  Director 

MRS.  A.  E.  BRIGDEN,  Assistant  Director 

G.  M.  WILEY.  Assistant  Director 


RURAL  SCHOOL  SURVEY 
of  NEW  YORK  STATE 

THE  RURAL  HIGH  SCHOOL 


By 
EMERY  N.  FERRISS 

PROFESSOR  OF  RURAL  EDUCATION 
CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


Ithaca,  New  York 
1922 


Copyright,  1922,  by 
Emery  N.  Ferriss 


WMF.  FELL  CO.  PRINTERS 
PHILADELPHIA 


. 


FOREWORD 

BULLETIN  No.  19  for  1920,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
indicates  that  there  were  13,951  public  high  schools  in  the 
United  States  in  the  academic  year  1917-18.    Slightly  more 
than  half  of  these  schools  had  each  an  enrolment  of  fifty  pupils  or 
less  and  seventy-five  percent  enrolled  each  one  hundred  pupils  or 
P'  less.    These  figures  serve  as  an  index  of  the  importance  of  the  small 
fk  high  school  in  the  program  of  secondary  education  in  this  country. 
f  These  small  schools  are  in  the  main  located  in  small  villages  or  in 
the  open  country,  and  this  study  of  the  rural  high  schools  of  New 
York  State  should  reveal  problems  that  are  of  general  interest  be- 
cause of  the  frequency  with  which  they  are  likely  to  be  met.    Dr. 
JP   Ferriss'  consideration  of  these  questions  should  prove  helpful  to 
P   those  who  are  concerned  with  the  administrative  and  the  instruc- 
•  tional  work  of  small  high  schools  throughout  the  country. 

In  the  organization  of  the  survey  the  administrative  phases  of 
this  study  were  placed  under  the  general  direction  of  Dr.  C.  H.  Judd, 

fl  while  Dr.  W.  C.  Bagley  had  a  similar  relation  to  the  problems  of 
Jf  instruction  and  teacher  preparation. 
1       This  study  was  made  and  the  results  published  with  money  fur- 
*   nished  by  the  Commonwealth  Fund. 
Geo.  A.  Works, 

Director. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreword 5 

List  of  Diagrams 9 

List  of  Tables 10 

PART  I.— ORGANIZATION,    ADMINISTRATION,    AND 
SUPERVISION 

CHAP. 

I.  The  Distribution  of  Rural  High  Schools  and  Their  Pupil 

Population 13 

The  Sources  of  Data 13 

Types  and  Distribution  of  Rural  High  Schools 13 

Percentage  of  Rural  High  School  Pupils  Coming  from  One-  and 

Two-teacher  Elementary  Schools 16 

Distribution  of  Pupils  by  School  Year  and  Age 17 

Ratio  of  Boys  to  Girls  in  Each  High  School  Year 24 

II.  The  Organization  of  the  Rural  High  School 25 

Number  and  Sex  of  Teaching  Staff 25 

The  Organization  of  the  School  Day 26 

The  Work  of  the  Principal:    Teaching  Load,  Supervision,  Office 
Work,  Clerical  Assistance,  Direction  of  Pupil  Activities,  Time 

Given  to  Non-pupil  Outside  Activities 28-39 

The  Teaching  Load  of  Teachers 39 

Size  of  Classes  in  the  Schools  of  Different  Types 43 

Types  of  Reorganization  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades  to  Link 

Them  up  with  the  High  School 46 

The  Junior  High  School  Organization 48 

III.  The  Administration  and  Supervision  of  the  Rural  High  School  .  52 

The  Principal  as  Director  and  Supervisor  of  Instruction 52 

The  Principal  and  the  Selection  of  Teachers,  and  the  Assignment  of 

Their  Work 55 

State  Inspection  of  the  Rural  High  School 57 

School  Records  on  File  in  the  Local  School 61 

Pupil  Guidance 61 

Supervised  Study 63 

Extra-Class-Room  Activities 65 

High  School  Assemblies 65 

Community  Organizations  Cooperating  With  the  School 69 

Appeals  Made  by  Principals  to  Interest  Pupils  of  Rural  Schools  in 

High  School  Education 71 

The  Regents  Examination  System  and  the  Administration  of  the 

Rural  High  School 72 

Buildings  and  Equipment 76 

7 


CHAP.  PAGE 

IV.  Recommendations  and  Suggestions  for  the  Improvement  of  the 
Organization,    Administration,    and    Supervision    of    the 

Rural  High  School 79 

General  Recommendations 79 

The  High  School  Principal 80 

The  High  School  Teacher 81 

Flexibility  in  the  Administration  of  High  School  Curricula  and 

Courses  of  Study 81 

Junior  High  Schools 82 

Inspections 83 

Supervision 83 

Buildings  and  Equipment 84 

Extra-Class-Room  Activities 85 

Pupil  Guidance  and  Supervised  Study 86 

Financing  the  Rural  High  Schools 86 

The  Standardization  of  the  Rural  High  School 87 

PART  II—  THE  TEACHING  STAFF;  CLASS-ROOM  INSTRUC- 
TION;  AND  THE  CURRICULUM 

Y.  The  Teaching  Staff 89 

The  Basis  of  the  Study 89 

Age  of  Teachers 90 

Sex 92 

Married  or  Single 92 

Earlv  Environment 92 

Place  of  Birth 94 

Nationality 96 

Occupational  Groups  Furnishing  the  Rural  High  School  Teachers.  96 

Parental  Income 97 

Size  of  Family 100 

Academic  and  Professional  Training 100 

Type  of  Certificate  Held 102 

Age  at  Which  Instructors  Begin  Teaching 103 

Number  of  Years'  Teaching  Experience 104 

Number  of  Years  in  Present  Position 105 

Number  of  Months  Employed 106 

Salary 108 

Economic   Status,   Income   from   Sources   Other   than   Teaching, 

Annual  Saving,  Amount  Paid  for  Life  Insurance 109-112 

Persons  Entirely  or  Partially  Dependent  Upon  Teacher  for  Support  112 

Money  Earning  Work  Done  Other  Than  Teaching 1 14 

Professional  Growth 115 

Summary  of  Salient  Points 119 

Recommendations 123 

VI.  The  Observation  of  Class-room  Instruction 127 

Method  Used 127 

Number  of  Schools  in  Which  Class-room  Work  was  Observed,  num- 
ber of  Recitations 130 

Statistical  Resume  of  Results 131 

General  Summary  of  Characteristics  of  Class-room  Teaching 140 

VII.  The  Curriculum 147 

Section  1. — The  Existing  Curricula 147 

Sources  of  Data 147 


PAGE 

Subjects  Offered  in  the  Rural  High  School 147 

Subjects  Required  in  385  Rural  High  Schools 150 

Subjects  Offered  as  Electives  in  385  Rural  High  Schools 151 

Percent  of  Pupil's  Time  Devoted  to  the  Various  Subjects 153 

Activities  Engaged  in  by  Graduates  of  Rural  High  Schools 154 

The  Adaptation  of  Curriculum  Elements  to  the  Pupil  as  Indicated 

by  Percentage  of  Failures 156 

The  State  Syllabi  for  Secondary  Schools  and  Their  Adaptation  to 

the  Rural  High  School 159 

Size  of  Classes  in  Different  Subjects  and  Estimated  Cost  of 

Instruction  Per  Pupil  Hour 165 

Contemporary  Magazines  as  a  Source  of  Supplementary  Subject 

Matter 168 

Section  2. — Some  Principles  Underlying  the  Building  of  a  Rural 

High  School  Curriculum 170 

Section  3. — General  Summary,  with  Suggestions  for  the  Improve- 
ment of  the  Curriculum  of  the  Rural  High  School 180 

Recommendations 181 


LIST  OF  DIAGRAMS 

DIAGRAM  PAGE 

1.  A  comparison  of  ages  of  ninth  grade  pupils  in  New  York  rural  high 

schools  and  all  Connecticut  high  schools 19 

2.  Number  of  pupils  in  the  different  years  of  high  school  in  proportion  to 

each  100  in  the  first  year,  for  New  York  four-year  rural  high  schools 
and  Massachusetts  high  schools  with  an  enrolment  under  200 21 

3.  Percent  of  boys  and  girls  in  different  years  of  the  rural  high  schools.  .     24 

4.  Proportion  of  men  and  women  teachers  in  New  York  rural  high  schools 

compared  with  25  city  high  schools  of  New  York  state  and  with  high 

schools  of  the  United  States 26 

5.  Distribution  of  the  principal's  time  during  the  school  day 39 

6.  The  rural  high  school  teacher's  daily  teaching  load 42 

7.  The  size  of  classes  in  the  different  types  of  rural  high  schools 45 

8.  Percent  of  New  York  rural  high  schools  of  different  types  having  pupil 

guidance 63 

9.  Percent  of  New  York  rural  high  schools  of  different  types  having  the 

active  cooperation  of  community  organizations 70 

10.  Age  of  rural  high  school  teaching  staff 91 

11.  Place  of  birth  of  principals  and  teachers 94 

12.  Occupations  of  fathers  of  principals  and  teachers 97 

13.  Teaching  experience  and  number  of  years  in  present  position  of  rural 

high  school  teachers 107 

14.  Time  given  to  the  making  of  the  assignment  of  lessons.    Percent  of  the 

179  recitations  studied 141 

15.  Percent  of  pupil's  time  given  to  various  subjects  throughout  the  high 

school  course 154 

9 


LIST  OF  TABLES 

TABLE  PAGE 

1.  Distribution  of  rural  high  schools  on  the  basis  of  size  of  center  in  which 

located  and  rank  of  school 15 

2.  Distribution  of  rural  high  schools  with  respect  to  counties  and  super- 

visory districts 16 

3.  The  percentage  that  pupils  coming  from  one-  and  two-tcachcr  elemen- 

tary schools  are  of  the  total  high  school  enrolment  in  the  high  schools 
classified  according  to  size  of  pupil  enrolment 17 

4.  (a)  High  school  age-grade  table  of  609  rural  high  schools  based  on  age 

at  the  beginning  of  school  year  1919-20;  (b)  Percentage  in  each 
year  of  each  age,  boys  and  girls  combined;  (c)  Connecticut 
(1918,  Nov.-Dec.) — percentage  of  each  age,  boys  and  girls  com- 
bined.   All  high  schools 18 

5.  Enrolment  by  years  in  403  rural  high  schools  of  New  York:  (a)  showing 

the  number,  boys  and  girls  separately,  enrolled  in  each  year;  (b)  the 
comparative  percentages  for  each  year,  using  the  first  year  as  the  100 
percent  basis;  (c)  the  distribution  in  each  year  on  the  basis  of  100 
pupils  enrolled  in  the  high  school 20 

6.  The  enrolment  by  years  of  the  pupils  in  the  rural  high  school  as  com- 

pared with  the  pupil  enrolment  in  certain  Eastern  states  and  with  the 
United  States  as  a  whole 21 

7.  The  number  of  graduates  for  each  100  pupils  entering  high  school.  ...     22 

8.  The  relative  percentage  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  different  years  of  the 

rural  high  school 24 

9.  The  teaching  staff  as  to  number  per  school  and  sex 25 

10.  The  organization  of  402  rural  high  schools  from  the  standpoint  of  num- 

ber of  recitation  periods  per  day  and  the  length  of  the  recitation 
period 27 

11.  The  teaching  load  of  the  principal 30 

12.  The  total  amount  of  time  per  day  devoted  by  the  high  school  principal 

to  supervision  of  instruction 31 

13.  Total  amount  of  time  per  day  devoted  by  the  high  school  principal  to 

supervision  of  high  school  instruction 32 

14.  Total  amount  of  time  per  day  devoted  by  the  high  school  principal  to 

supervision  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  grades 33 

15.  Total  amount  of  time  per  day  devoted  by  the  high  school  principal  to 

office  work 34 

16.  The  clerical  assistance  given  the  principal 35 

17.  Total  amount  of  time  per  day  devoted  by  the  high  school  principal  to 

pupil  activities 36 

io 


TABLE  PAGE 

18.  Total  amount  of  time  per  day  devoted  by  the  high  school  principal  to 

non-pupil  outside  activities 37 

19.  Total  distribution  of  the  principal's  time  during  the  school  day 38 

20.  The  high  school  teacher's  daily  teaching  load,  expressed  in  terms  of: 

(a)  Number  of  different  subjects  taught;  (b)  number  of  periods  of 
class-room  teaching;  (c)  number  of  periods  on  duty,  teaching  plus 
study-room  supervision 41 

21.  The  size  of  classes  in  New  York  rural  high  schools  grouped  according  to 

number  of  pupils  enrolled 44 

22.  Reorganization  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  either  in  the  modifica- 

tion of  course  of  study  or  of  organization  to  link  them  up  with  the 

high  school 47 

23.  Number  of  high  school  teachers'  meetings  held  by  principal  each  month  52 

24.  Number  of  individual  conferences  with  teachers  concerning  their  work 

by  principal  each  month 53 

25.  The  extent  to  which  the  principal  has  a  voice  in  the  selection  of  teachers  55 

26.  The  principal's  responsibility  in  the  assignment  of  teacher's  work .  .  .  56 

27.  Nature  of  assistance  given  high  school:   (a)  by  district  superintendent; 

(b)  by  State  Department 60 

28.  Types  of  school  records  kept  on  file  in  local  high  school  office 61 

29.  Ways  and  means  of  pupil  guidance  in  New  York  rural  high  schools.  .  .  62 

30.  Schools  having  supervised  study  and  the  plan  used 64 

31.  Number  and  kinds  of  extra-class-room  activities 66 

32.  Extra-class-room  activities:    Time  of  meeting,   methods  of  control, 

nature  of  teachers'  responsibility 67 

33.  High  school  assemblies:   frequency,  length  in  minutes,  method  of  con- 

ducting, nature  of  exercises,  nature  and  amount  of  pupil  participation  68 

34.  Community  organizations  actively  cooperating  with  the  school 70 

35.  Appeals  made  by  principal  of  high  school  to  interest  pupils  from  rural 

schools  in  high  school  education 71 

36.  Age  of  teaching  staff  at  nearest  birthday 91 

37.  Sex  of  teaching  staff 92 

38.  Number  and  percent  of  teaching  staff  married  and  single 92 

39.  Early  environment  of  teaching  staff 93 

40.  Place  of  birth  of  rural  high  school  instructors 94 

41.  Nationality  of  parents 95 

42.  Occupation  of  the  father 96 

43.  Annual  parental  income 97 

44.  Type  of  family,  on  basis  of  size,  furnishing  the  teacher  of  the  rural  high 

school 98 

45.  Academic  and  professional  training 101 

45A.  Academic  training  of  2,387  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers 

of  the  state  (1919-20) 102 

46.  Type  of  certificate  held 102 

47.  Age  at  which  rural  high  school  instructors  begin  teaching 103 

48.  Number  of  years'  teaching  experience 104 

ii 


TABLE  PAGE 

49.  Number  of  years  in  present  position 106 

50.  Number  of  months  employed 106 

51.  Salaries  of  416  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers  in  1920-21  .  .  .  108 

52.  Salaries  of  2,387  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers  in  1919-20.  .  109 

53.  The  amount  of  money  derived  from  other  sources  during  the  year  (inter- 

est received,  income  from  other  investments,  etc.) 110 

54.  Approximate  amount  of  money  earned  outside  regular  teaching  salary 

during  the  year 110 

55.  Amount  saved  during  the  year  in  addition  to  life  insurance  and  pension  111 

56.  Amount  paid  for  life  insurance  exclusive  of  pension 112 

57.  Persons  dependent  upon  principals  and  teachers  for  support 113 

58.  Money  earning  work  engaged  in  other  than  teaching 115 

59.  Manner  of  spending  the  summer  vacation 116 

60.  Membership  in  teachers'  organizations 117 

61 .  Teachers'  reading  circles  as  reported  by  348  rural  high  school  principals  .    1 18 

62.  Subjects  offered  by  609  rural  high  schools  in  1919-20 148 

63.  Subjects  required  of  all  pupils  as  reported  by  the  principals  of  385  rural 

high  schools 150 

64.  Subjects  offered  as  electives  as  reported  by  the  principals  of  385  rural 

high  schools 152 

65.  Activities  engaged  in  in  1921  by  2,683  rural  high  school  graduates.  .  .  .    155 

66.  Percent  of  pupils  failed  by  teachers  and  regents  of  all  those  taking  the 

examination  1907-1918:  (a)  in  eight  subjects  commonly  taught  in 
the  rural  high  school;   (b)  average  percent  failed  in  all  subjects.  .  .  .   157 

67.  Subject  failures  in  30  Connecticut  high  schools 157 

68.  Percent  of  pupils  failing  in  15  subjects  in  75  Wisconsin  high  schools.  . .    158 

69.  The  distribution  of  rural  high  school  pupils  in  eight  academic  subjects 

on  the  basis  of  grades  received  in  the  Regents  examinations  in  June, 
1920.  (Based  on  the  grades  of  approximately  1,000  pupils  in  each 
subject.) 159 

70.  The  percentage  of  classes  of  different  sizes  in  nineteen  subjects  com- 

monly taught  in  rural  high  schools 166 

71.  The  median  class  in  sixteen  academic  subjects  in  the  different  types  of 

rural  high  schools  classified  on  the  basis  of  number  of  pupils  enrolled, 
the  variation  from  the  median  for  all  classes,  and  the  estimated  cost  of 
instruction  per  pupil  hour 167 

72.  Magazines  in  rural  high  school  libraries 109 


THE  RURAL  HIGH  SCHOOL 

PARTI 

ORGANIZATION,  ADMINISTRATION,  AND 
SUPERVISION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE    DISTRIBUTION    OF   RURAL   HIGH    SCHOOLS 
AND  THEIR  PUPIL  POPULATION 

THE  data  used  as  the  basis  of  the  study  of  the  organization, 
administration,  and  supervision  of  the  rural  high  schools  were 
derived  mainly  from  three  sources:  (1)  statistics  and  reports 
of  the  State  Department  of  Education;  (2)  the  replies  of  405  prin- 
cipals to  a  questionnaire  sent  to  all  rural  high  school  principals  of 
the  State;  and  (3)  visitation  of  over  75  rural  high  schools  in  all  sec- 
tions of  the  State.  In  the  use  of  data  on  any  item  gained  through 
the  replies  of  principals  only  those  schools  were  included  for  which 
there  was  a  definite  report  on  that  particular  item.  The  405  princi- 
pals reporting  represented  approximately  66  per  cent  of  each  type 
of  rural  high  school  in  the  State,  classification  being  made  on  the 
basis  of  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  high  school  work. 

Types  and  Distribution 

According  to  Handbook  24  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New 
York  for  October,  1920,  there  were  at  that  time  765  public  high 

13 


schools1  in  the  State.  Of  the  765  public  high  schools,  609  were 
rural  high  schools  located  in  centers  of  4500  population  or  less  and 
doing  from  one  to  four  years  of  accredited  high  school  work.  Of 
these  rural  high  schools,  413  were  fully  accredited  four  year  high 
schools;  110  were  ranked  as  senior  schools  doing  three  years  of 
accredited  work,  though  a  large  percentage  of  these  schools  offered 
the  fourth  year;  34  were  ranked  as  middle  schools  doing  two  years 
of  accredited  work;  and  52  ranked  as  junior  schools  doing  one  year 
of  accredited  work.  During  the  year  two  junior  schools,  Benson 
Mines  and  Sloan,  and  one  middle  school,  Hyde  Park,  discontinued 
high  school  work.  During  the  year,  also,  undoubtedly  several 
schools  were  added  to  the  accredited  list  for  one  or  more  years  of 
high  school  work  and  some  were  advanced  in  rank.  However, 
this  number  is  not  great  enough  to  change  materially  the  relative 
number  and  proportion  of  rural  high  schools. 

In  1918,  according  to  statistics  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, New  York  stood  27th  among  the  states  in  the  number  of 
high  school  pupils  enrolled  for  each  1000  of  population,  with  15.3  or 
0.3  less  than  the  average  of  15.6  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole. 
With  regard  to  the  percentage  of  population  (18  years  old)  graduat- 
ing from  four  year  high  schools,  New  York  stood  30th  with  8.05, 
or  2.27  less  than  the  average  of  10.32  for  the  United  States  as  a 
whole. 

In  this  study  the  rural  high  schools  are  distributed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  first,  as  to  the  size  of  the  center  of  population  in  which 
they  are  located;  second,  as  to  distribution  by  counties;  third,  as 
to  distribution  by  district  superintendents'  districts;  and  fourth, 
as  to  number  of  high  school  pupils  enrolled.  Two  hundred  and 
forty-seven  schools,  according  to  the  U.  S.  Census  for  1920,  are  in 
rural  communities  or  in  unincorporated  centers;  75  are  in  villages 
with  a  population  of  500  or  less;  107  are  in  villages  with  a  popu- 
lation between  500  and  1000,  making  a  total  of  429  high  schools, 
or  over  70  per  cent,  in  centers  of  1000  or  less.  As  to  rank,  these 
429  schools  stand  as  follows:  49  junior  schools,  33  middle  schools, 
106  senior  schools,  and  241  four  year  high  schools.     (See  Table  1 .) 

1  The  terra  "high  school"  is  used  throughout  this  report  as  applying  to  any 
school  offering  one  or  more  years  of  secondary  school  work. 

14 


Table  1. — Distribution  of  Rural  High  Schools  on  thi 

Basis  of  Size  of 

Center  in  which  Located  and  Rank  of  School 

Size  of  center 

Junior 
schools 

Middle 
schools 

Senior 
schools 

High 
schools 

Total 

Rural  or  unincorporated 

hamlets 

40 

24 

82 

101 

247 

Villages  of  250  or  under 

1 

4 

3 

8 

250-    500 

4 

7 

14 

42 

67 

500-    750 

5 

1 

4 

53 

63 

750-1,000 

2 

42 

44 

1,000-1,250 

1 

35 

36 

1,250-1,500 

24 

24 

1,500-1,750 

2 

24 

26 

1,750-2,000 

13 

13 

2,000-2,250 

1 

1 

11 

13 

2,250-2,500 

11 

11 

2,500-2,750 

1 

16 

17 

2,750-3,000 

6 

6 

3,000-3,250 

"l 

7 

9 

3,250-3,500 

6 

6 

3,500-3,750 

4 

4 

3,750-4,000 

6 

6 

4,000-4,250 

5 

5 

4,250-4,500 

2 

2 

Above    4,500,    1920 

U.  S.  Census 

2 

2 

Total 

52 

34 

110 

413 

609 

In  the  distribution  by  counties  the  rural  high  schools  number  per 
county  from  three  in  Fulton  county  to  27  each  for  St.  Lawrence  and 
Suffolk  counties.  By  supervisory  districts  the  distribution  runs 
from  none  in  seven  supervisory  districts  to  13  high  schools  in  the  first 
supervisory  district  of  Suffolk  county.  There  is  a  discrepancy  of 
11  high  schools  between  the  report  by  counties  and  supervisory 
districts  (this  report  giving  620  schools  doing  high  school  work) 
and  the  number  given  in  the  October,  1920,  Directory  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  the  State  of  New  York.  This  discrepancy  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  district  superintendents  have  reported  some 
schools  not  recognized  by  the  State  Department  as  giving  accred- 
ited high  school  work.  For  the  detailed  distribution  by  counties 
and  supervisory  districts  see  Table  2. 

15 


Table  2. — Distribution  of  Rural  High  Schools  With  Respect  to  Coun- 
ties and  Supervisory  Districts  (District  Superintendents'  Report, 
1920) 

A.     Distribution  of  Rural  High  Schools  by  Counties 

Albany 4       Hamilton 3       Rockland 7 

Allegany 16       Herkimer. .  7       St.  Lawrence. .  .   27 


Broome 5 

Cattaraugus 19 

Cayuga 13 

Chautauqua 21 

Chemung 6 

Chenango 13 

Clinton 12 

Columbia 6 

Cortland 6 

Delaware 13 

Dutchess 12 

Erie 19 

Essex 14 

Franklin 9 

Fulton 3 

Genesee 8 

Greene 7 


Jefferson 23 

Lewis 8 

Livingston 12 

Madison 18 

Monroe 13 

Montgomery 6 

Nassau 13 

Niagara 6 

Oneida 23 

Onondaga 21 

Ontario 9 

Orange 15 

Orleans 5 

Oswego 12 

Otsego 20 

Putnam 5 

Rensselaer 5 


Saratoga 8 

Schenectady 3 

Schoharie 6 

Schuyler 4 

Seneca 4 

Steuben 18 

Suffolk 27 

Sullivan 11 

Tioga 6 

Tompkins 7 

Ulster 5 

Warren 6 

Washington 10 

Wayne 13 

Westchester 9 

Wyoming 9 

Yates 3 


B.     Distribution  of  Rural  High  Schools  in  the  208  Supervisory  Districts 

Number  of  schools  per  district 1      2     3     4     5   6   7   8   9    10    11    12    13 

Number  of  districts  having  each 
number  of  schools 7   31   44  61   35    18   7    1    1    2 1 

The  rural  high  schools  are  distributed  as  follows  according  to  the 
number  of  high  school  pupils  enrolled:  332  schools,  or  54.5  per  cent 
of  all  the  rural  high  schools  of  the  State,  have  an  enrolment  of  less 
than  50;  180  schools  or  29.5  per  cent  have  an  enrolment  of  50-99; 
65  schools  or  10.7  percent  have  an  enrolment  of  100-149;  and  32 
schools  or  5.2  per  cent  have  an  enrolment  of  150  or  over. 

Percentage  of  Pupils  Coming  From  One  and  Two  Teacher 

Schools 

A  study  of  the  percentage  of  the  high  school  pupils  coming  from 
one  and  two  teacher  elementary  schools  shows  that  the  schools  with 
enrolments  of  1  to  49  (not  including  the  schools  of  1-49  pupils 
offering  less  than  4  years '  high  school  work)  and  50  to  99  are  most 
typically  rural  from  the  standpoint  of  ratio  of  rural  pupils  enrolled 
to  village  pupils  enrolled.  These  schools  should  be  also  most  rural 
or  sympathetic  with  rural  conditions  in  regard  to  their  village  en- 
rolment because  of  the  rural  interests  of  the  small  village.  The 
four  year  high  schools  with  a  pupil  enrolment  under  50  also  have 

1 6 


the  largest  percentage  of  pupils  from  other  villages  with  no  or  less 
than  four  year  high  schools.  In  the  schools  of  these  two  classes,  on 
the  basis  of  enrolment,  one-third  of  the  pupils  are  from  rural  com- 
munities. The  schools  with  an  enrolment  above  100  have  a 
smaller  percentage  of  rural  pupils,  although  in  actual  numbers  the 
enrolment  of  rural  pupils  per  school  is  at  least  equal  to  that  of  the 
smaller  schools.  The  main  problem  of  high  school  opportunities 
for  the  rural  child  of  New  York  seems  to  be  largely  the  prob- 
lem of  the  high  school  with  a  pupil  enrolment  of  1  to  100,  both  be- 
cause these  schools  are  84  per  cent  of  all  the  rural  high  schools  and 
because  of  the  relative  number  of  pupils  attending  from  one  and 
two  teacher  schools. 

Table  3. — The  Percentage  that  Pupils  Coming  from  One-  and  Two- 
Teacher  Elementary  Schools  are  of  the  Total  High  School  Enrol- 
ment in  the  High  Schools  Classified  According  to  Size  of  Pupil  Enrol- 
ment.    (403  High  Schools) 


Types  of  schools  on 

basis  of  size  of 

enrolment 

Percentage  that  pupils 

from  one-  and  two-teacher 

schools  are  of  the  total 

high  school  enrolment 

Percentage  that  pupils 
from  other  villages  are  of 
total  high  school  enrol- 
ment 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

1-49     (less    than    4 

years) 

1-49 

21.0 
33.5 
33.1 
25.8 
24.1 
29.2 

22.3 
32.3 
31.9 
29.5 
24.6 
29.6 

1.1 
6.4 
1.0 

0.7 
0.8 

0.8 

1.1 
6.3 

50-99 

100-149 

0.9 

0.8 

150 

0.6 

All  rural  high  schools . 

0.8 

Distribution  of  Pupils  by  School  Year  and  Age 
The  distribution  of  the  pupils  in  the  609  rural  high  schools  with 
reference  to  age  and  year  of  high  school  work  shows  that  the  range 
in  ages  for  any  year  of  the  course  is  wide.  The  relatively  large  per- 
centage of  pupils  at  or  above  the  age  of  sixteen  in  the  first  two 
years  is  very  noticeable.  In  comparison  with  all  the  high  schools 
of  Connecticut  the  percentage  of  pupils  in  the  high  school  year  to 
which  they  would  normally  belong  is  low.     (Table  4.) 

2  17 


pq 


hS 


6 

M 

© 

u 

'/. 

i 

n 

On 

o 

B 

2~ 

H 

< 

w 

t 

>H 

o 


pa 

H 


_ 

<o 

vC 

- 

-J 

„ 

- 

an 

„ 

,„ 

T 

c 

— 

0 

X 

1- 

to 

ro 

>o 

1/3 

i  - 

■— 

CN 

■  - 

*© 

I- 

~ 

"" 

-1 

CO 

*"* 

~i 

3 

*c 

r*\ 

m 

■* 

r> 

oc 

o 

r 

^  > 

rn   C 

© 

C 

on 

s 

EN 

CO 

T 

c 

— 

o- 

-t 

to 

* 

-t 

-t 

'": 

r^ 

o 

— 

>r 

-r 

-r 

•* 

9 

or, 

~ 

r^ 

•t 

f 

>o 

co 

-t- 

rs 

-r 

.. 

•* 

-t 

CN 

cn 

CO 

~: 

CN 

- 

U-) 

X 

c 

3 

T 

co 

s 

c 

X 

» 

~. 

i  - 

oo 

i 

CO 

-. 

to 

•* 

« 

X 

J 

X 

>o 

EC 

« 

-t 

_j 

c 

T 

*f 

a 

i^- 

_ 

V 

CO 

"i 

f> 

J 

o> 

q 

T 

to 

00 

- 

-'. 

>o 

CO 

Tf 

„ 

C 

f^ 

X 

I/* 

■* 

C 

(N 

r^ 

"-■ 

X 

00 

-r 

O 

© 

CN 

- 

Tf 

r^ 

q 
ad 

r^ 

- 

tN 

„ 

on 

r^ 

to 

[^ 

/ 

.. 

rs 

-r 

00_ 

1/5 

e 

C 

CO 

"■ 

e 

to 

r^ 

M 

tf 

to 

© 

":_ 

en 

r 

cn 

CO 

l/> 

X 

c 

X 

CN 

~! 

Wi 

c 

« 

X 

" 

I'- 

f^ 

CO 

CO 

X 

<v 

g 

en 

/• 

ll) 

? 

to 

v 

co 

. 

, 

< 

" 

' 

- 

- 

- 

X 

CJ 

£ 

a 

_ 

-J 

j= 

at 

* 

-j 

l^— 

~—^ 

^— 

^-~ 

V 

01 

cv 

1 

■D 

•o 

■u 

■0 

(0 

CS 

co 

M 

M 

& 

Q 

M 

S 

A 

X 

jB 

ja 

J2 

H 

C* 

© 

cn 

CO 

"-• 

- 

-r 

00 

c 

X 

r 

o  oj 
^1  o 

O 

q 

q 

i/a 

1/5 

"-. 

r; 

o 

oo 

9 

X 

;•: 

2 

X 

O 
c 
q 

X 

00 

oo 

to 

p 

4) 

c 
IS 

B 
o 
o 

oo 

- 

S 
£ 

-r 

r 

q 

-t 
c 

'8 

— 
a 

" 

X 

-r 

r 

-'. 
-r 

X 

to 

-t 
c 

C 

>. 

o 

60 
CO 

vO 

S 
c 

d 

« 

>o 

u 

cd 

O 

cB 

>> 

o 
a 
<u 

c' 

oo 

■6 

- 

-1- 

X 

to 

•* 

o 

c 
5 
s 

to 

lO 

o 

^  j 
o 

C 

u 

a 

u 

<o 

3 

to 

1/5 

t*l 

lO 

oc 

" 

X 

i 
3 

2 

to 
to 
q 

q 

3 

oo 

l/J 

X 

X 

q 

-T 

-J 

5 
S 

u 
ia 

S 

5 

s 

.c 

cu 
— 
S 

bi 

1j 

tr 

'0 

4; 
u 

V 

a 

0 

r- 

_ 

-1 

vo 

<N 

O 

- 

~ 

O 

o 

- 

<o 

o 

o 

c 

c 

O 

O 

■J 

•* 

tN 

IT 

it. 

>o 

CO 

* 

-J 

... 

-. 

■* 

XS 

c 

< 

-t 

or 

~ 

~ 

"■ 

r. 

JO 

B 

o 

o 

to 

EX 

-J 

cd 

-/ 

.. 

CJ> 

^3 

to 

™ 

01 

an 

nt 

to 

o 

CO 

NO 

9 

— 

~ 

~i 

CN 

CJ 

= 

9 

» 

-  ; 

-*. 

0> 
O 

01 

~ 

~ , 

- 

IT 

sj 

00 

X 

C 

— 

o 

r^. 

X 

lO 

«* 

B 

" 

CN 

li 

01 

(li 

9 

■* 

CN 

| 

m< 

CN 

r^ 

CO 

~* 

o' 

9 

iO 

-t 

01 

~| 

"J 

ti 

ij 

O 

i 

X 

i/-. 

"J 

n 

£ 

S 

tN 

> 

o 

t^ 

>C 

c 

— 

to 

to 

O 

rsi 

l/J 

CN 

r 

lO 

o 

to 

IO 

T 

— 

to 

c 

~~ 

a 

CJ 

CJ 

o 

t: 

a 

'. 

u 

a 

01 

;. 

:.' 

I 

~ 

T- 

T" 

■:■ 

-, 

-1 

ffl 

rfl 

bl 

bl 

bl 

B| 

4J 

q 

a 

B 

JS 

h 

^ 

c 

3 

^i 

1 

•2  .*? 


1 8 


Per  cent 


30 

New  York        | 
Connecticut .TJ 

20 

10 

1 

o.       If 

■n     m_ _ 

11 
Age 
Diagram  1.- 


12       13 


14        15 


16        17        18 


19       20        21+ 


-Comparison  of  ages  of  9th  grade  pupils  in  New  York  rural  high 
schools  and  all  Connecticut  high  schools 


A  comparison  of  New  York  rural  high  schools  with  the  rural 
high  schools  of  the  United  States  as  a  whole  and  with  the  high 
schools  of  certain  other  states  for  which  data  are  available  shows 
that  the  percentage  of  pupils  reaching  the  third  and  fourth  years  is 
comparatively  low.  It  is  considerably  lower  than  for  all  the  rural 
high  schools  of  the  United  States.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
Federal  Bureau  of  Education,  for  1917-18  New  York  stood  27th 
on  the  basis  of  number  of  high  school  pupils  enrolled  per  1000  popu- 
lation, but  dropped  to  30th  place  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  grad- 
uates per  1000  (18  years  old).  In  the  New  York  rural  high  schools 
the  percentage  of  pupils  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  is  very  similar 
to  the  percentage  in  the  last  two  years  for  all  the  schools  of  New 
Jersey  and  is  materially  less  than  that  of  New  Hampshire.  Com- 
pared with  the  schools  of  Connecticut  with  a  pupil  enrolment 
under  100,  or  with  the  schools  of  Massachusetts  with  a  pupil  en- 
rolment under  200,  the  New  York  rural  high  schools  show  in  both 
instances  a  smaller  percentage  of  pupils  retained  to  the  third  and 
fourth  years.  A  comparison  with  all  New  York  high  schools  indi- 
cates a  greater  holding  power  of  the  rural  high  school  over  the  city 
high  schools  of  the  State.      (Tables  5  and  6.) 

10 


w  3 


w    < 


1* 
cd 

v 
>> 

"7* 

r- 

On  On  rs) 
IT}  CN  ro 

co 

O0  <T!  <0  00 

qcqq 

tN 

CO 

lO  CN  CN 

CN  On  «-h 

5 

© 

© 

_C 

it* 

tn 

~*  -^  ©  "+  *i" 

CO 

•<ti^ir>'* 

CN 

"0  'O  ■<*  t— 

Q 

u. 

o 
pq 

rtTtrc-i 

r 

rtNrO- 

cs 

O  CN  ■*  NO 

q 

qcqq 

© 

1-1  —' 

^ 

M 

tn 

00  I/O  »-i  ■*  i/O 

*t  00  nO  00 

co 

X 

rtNvOUl 

U0 

O  *t  io  ^ 
CN  ©  t^.  NO 

© 

s 

>> 

3 

^to^t^ 

9 

ro  CO  CO  CO 

-t- 

CO 

-+  LO  -^  ro 

-t 

oq 

-C 

"i 

Ih 

o 

« 

f^  00  X  ^  Oi 

On 

-r 

On  •*  t^  co 

o 

CM   ©    NO   © 

—  CN  <"0  O 

CN 

fc 

P5 

CN  ro  CN  CN 

"il^  X  rO 
CN  CN  CN,  CN 

-1- 

CN 

--CNirNC 

~~ 

P. 

-h  1/0  **  "*  O0 

IO  O  OO  lO  N 

lOMKO 

00 

©  CN  CN  CN 

Tf  1/0  nO  On 

CO 

O 

nO  00  "0  Tf 

"0 

CV 

On  O  co  ^ 

•»*   "O   Tf   ""* 

-r 

On  On  t^  NO 

00 

>. 

"* 

"O 

t-^ 

jm 

IS 

tfl 

iDWfno^ 

c> 

o  ^  io  'o 

00 

rg  io  o  O 

© 

H 

X 

CN  to  •>*  o  ■>* 

o 

J—  no  ©  io 

en 

o 

PQ 

K)U",  'ff^ 

<C 

no  r--  On  no 
co  co  co  co 

>o 
ro 

O  NO  l-»  nO 

c 

tn 

XO>OCSM 

CO 

NrHl>.rH 

oc 

©On  no  © 

© 

>- 

Th 

O  ^  ••*  co  cc 

t 

^  ^  ■*  ^ 

^ 

cd 
>> 

O 

~h  00  ^00  r~ 

1  - 

CO 

NO  "0  lO  00 

NO  NO  NO  NO 

-1- 

NO    "0    NO   1^ 

rMCNJCNJCN 

CN 

13 
C 
O 
(J 

tn 

l>  N  O  00  l^ 

Qn  r<2  ro  t-(  tJ< 

On 
f 

O  CN  >-H  CO 

-t- 

00  ■>*  'O  © 
©  ■<*  CN  >/0 

© 

c/a 

o 
pq 

i/o  oo  no  to 

NO 
CN 

■"d"  *■»  »H  00 
1/0   I/O   NO  LO 

1/ 

IO    U0    NO    NO 

CN  CN  (>)  rsa 

"0 
CN 

•75 

Tt<  CN  00  NO  t^ 

t^ 

COO(N 

© 

~c 

>n  on/no'* 

-f 

o  o  o  o 

c 

CN  00  CN  O 

"0 

cd 

O 

^(NNMrn 

l^ 

O  3  ©  O 

; 

ON  00  ©  © 

© 

cu 

<r 

CO  co  -*  ■+ 

-+ 

^1 

CN 

tn 

-r 

tfi 

Os  r*  _i  ^  00 

CO 

<^i  OC  I/O  © 

2 

U* 

>* 

O  O  'O  *-i  <"0 

O 

©  ©  ©  © 

c 

•rf    Tf|    ON    '/0 

a 

O 

P3 

<N  On  •■*  ©_  On 

nC 

©  ©  ©  © 

5 

O  Tf  CN i  I/O 
^1   TJ*   Tf1   "^* 

"0 

i— 1   ^H 

*tf 

-t- 

■r 

c 

H 

3 
o 

rt 

t- 

j_" 

tH 

E 

& 

O 

JJ 

> 

i] 

i/i 

C 

o 

O 

c 

r/3  -o 

Efl  'O 

^2  T3 

EJ 

c 

S 
u 

in 

U  3  _  ts 

"3 

a  o.j£ 

-  3        ^3 

ui'S 

u  3    _    S3 

T3 
'3 

.—*  3  o  3  a2  a 

or-  3  co;  a 

?k  3    ftO    O. 

a 

«  a  o  aJT^  3 

— '        _fl         On  "-"    O- 
On    (j  On  Ov     1      ^ 

cc 

c 

-O    Q.JT"*    3 

On  *— '    n_ 

On  On    1     ^ 

*5 

s— '       On  *— i    n 
On  On     I      "• 

•tioo 
1  ©  © 

cd 

at 
(/I 

f    r/:  -f     1    ©  © 
I             1    O  O  i/0 

-+  1  ©  © 
1    ©  ©  'O 

f-1 

—i 

'<■ 

*- ' 

u- 

^^ 

ir 

"-1 

— 1 

^H  ^ 


Table  6. — A  Study  of  P^nrolment  by  Years  of  the  Pupils  in  the  Rural 
High  Schools  as  Compared  with  the  Pupil  Enrolment  in  Certain 
Eastern  States  and  with  the  United  States  as  a  Whole.  The  Distribu- 
tion in  Each  Year  is  Shown  on  the  Basis  of  a  Total  High  School  Enrol- 
ment of  100  Pupils 


Type  of  school 


1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

year 

year 

year 

year 

41.51 

26.85 

17.69 

12.81 

41.8 

26.1 

17.8 

13.3 

43.8 

26.6 

17.2 

11.3 

40.25 

27.75 

18.41 

13.59 

40.2 

26.4 

17.4 

15.5 

36.5 

26.8 

20.8 

15.9 

42.6 

26.4 

17.3 

13.5 

40.0 

24.8 

19.1 

16.0 

38.9 

27.1 

19.6 

14.4 

5th 

year 


609  rural  high  schools,  New  York 
(1919-20) 

345  (four-year)  rural  high  schools, 
New  York  (1920-21) 

All  New  York  high  schools  (1916-17) 

54  rural  high  schools  offering  voca- 
tional courses (1919-20) 

Connecticut  high  schools  with  enrol- 
ment under  100  pupils  (1920-21).  . 

Massachusetts  high  schools  with  en- 
rolment  under  200  pupils  (1916-17) 

New  Jersey  high  schools  (1917-18) .  . 

New  Hampshire  high  schools  (1915- 
16) 

Rural  high  schools  of  United  States 
(1917-18) 

100       100 


1.12 

00 

20 


50 


New  York    ■■ 
Massachusetts  I      l 


57 


4* 


1st  year  2nd  year  3rd  year  4th  year 

Diagram  2. — Number  of  pupils  in  the  different  years  of  high  school  in  pro- 
portion to  each  100  in  the  first  year,  for  New  York  four-year  rural  high  schools 
and  Massachusetts  high  schools  with  an  enrolment  under  200 


The  number  of  pupils  graduating  for  each  100  entering  high 
school  is  considerably  higher  in  the  rural  high  school  than  in  the 
city  high  schools  of  the  State  and  slightly  lower  than  in  the  case  of 
high  schools  situated  in  villages  having  superintendents. 

Table  7. — The  Number  of  Graduates  for  Each  100  Pupils  Entering 

High  School1 


Type  of  school 

First  year 
pupils,  1916 

Graduates, 
1920 

Continuing 

education, 

1920 

Cities  and  villages  having  superin- 
tendent   

Rural  high  schools 

100 
100 
100 
100 

25.82 
31.94 
30.99 
32.30 

14.27 
18.89 

Rural  high  and  senior  schools 

Villages  having  superintendents ... 

18.25 
14.42 

The  percentage  of  pupils  over  18  years  of  age  in  each  year  of  high 
school  work  is  high.  The  New  York  distribution  of  pupils  for  rural 
high  schools  shows  a  pulling  both  toward  underage  and  toward 
overage,  particularly  the  latter.  A  large  factor  operating  to  pro- 
duce both  of  these  characteristics  is  probably  the  final  examination 
as  the  sole  basis  of  promotion,  and  the  rigid,  inflexible  type  of  cur- 
riculum in  the  small  high  schools. 

The  study  of  225,865  employed  boys  of  the  ages  16,  17,  and  18 
years  made  by  the  New  York  State  Military  Training  Commission 
bears  out  the  facts  given  above.  It  shows  that  while  the  employed 
boys  of  the  ages  given,  from  places  under  5000  population  and  from 
rural  districts,  tended  in  greater  percentages  than  employed  boys 
from  larger  centers  to  remain  in  school  one  year  beyond  the  legal 
age,  and  in  equal  percentages  for  two  and  three  years,  the  grade 
attained  in  school,  particularly  in  the  case  of  farm  boys,  was  ma- 
terially less  than  for  the  boys  in  the  larger  centers.  The  following 
statistics,  taken  from  the  study2  by  Howard  G.  Burdge,  the  Director 
of  the  work  of  the  Commission,  give  the  facts  in  detail : 

1  Statistics  from  Assistant  Commissioner  for  Secondary  Education. 

2  Burdge,  Howard  G.:  Our  Boys,  pp.  64,  88,  102. 


1.  Persistence  in  School  (from  Burdge) 


Groups 

Left 

illegally 

Left  on 

reaching 
legal  age 

Remained  beyond  legal  age 

One 
year 

Two 
years 

Three 
years 

Greater  New  York 

Cities  over  25,000 

Cities  under  25,000 
Villages  over  5,000 
Places  under  5,000 
Employed  farm  boys.  .  .  . 

7.0 
4.8 
8.7 
5.0 
4.3 
3.4 

28.6 
28.9 
23.5 
23.6 
23.8 
26.4 

39.9 
37.1 
36.0 
36.8 
38.0 
40.0 

20.5 
22.5 
24.0 
26.9 
26.0 
25.1 

4.0 
6.7 
7.8 
7.7 
7.9 
5.1 

2.  Last  Grade  Completed,  Percentage  Completing  Each  Grade 
(from  Burdge) 


4th 

High  school 

grade 
or 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

grade 

grade 

grade 

grade 

I 

II 

TTT 

TV 

under 

61.5 

3.3 

Greater  New  York .... 

100 

94.3 

91.8 

84.4 

18.0 

9.2 

1.0 

Cities  over  25, 000 

100 

96.6 

92.6 

77.4 

55.6 

24.2 

11.2 

4.0 

1.3 

Cities  under  25,000.  .  . 

100 

95.1 

89.2 

71.7 

49.8 

23.7 

10.3 

3.4 

1.2 

Villages  over  5,000. .  .  . 

100 

94.8 

88.6 

71.9 

49.7 

22.2 

10.0 

3.6 

1.2 

Places  under  5,000.  ..  . 

100 

95.8 

89.4 

71.8 

47.9 

21.0 

10.1 

3.9 

2.0 

Employed  farm  boys.  . 

100 

96.8 

89.3 

71.0 

41.5 

12.4 

5.6 

1.9 

0.7 

The  same  study  also  shows  that  the  rate  of  progress  in  school  in 
the  case  of  employed  boys  from  places  under  5000  and  from  rural 
communities  was  less  than  for  the  larger  centers.  In  conclusion 
the  study  of  employed  boys  of  the  State  supports  the  facts  shown 
by  the  age-distribution  of  pupils  in  the  rural  high  schools  as  to  the 
comparatively  high  percentage  of  retardation  and  elimination. 
The  following  table  gives  the  percentage  of  a  grade  made  each  year 
while  in  school : 

3.  Average  Rate  of  Progress  per  Grade  per  Year  (from  Burdge) 

Greater  New  York 92.2  percent 

Cities  over  25,000 90.1       " 

Cities  under  25,000 86.9 

Villages  over  5,000 85.1 

Places  under  5,000 84.9 

Employed  farm  boys 82.8       " 

23 


Ratio  of  Boys  to  Girls  in  each  School  Year 
In  the  matter  of  the  ratio  of  boys  to  girls  in  each  year  of  the 
high  school,  New  York  rural  high  schools  follow  closely  the  aver- 
age for  rural  and  village  high  schools  for  the  whole  United  States, 
as  shown  by  the  comparison  with  statistics  compiled  from  the  Re- 
port of  the  Bureau  of  Education  on  High  Schools  for  1917-18. 
If,  however,  the  ratio  is  studied  comparatively  with  respect  to  the 
New  York  rural  high  schools  of  the  different  classes,  classification 
being  made  on  the  basis  of  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  the  condi- 
tion shown  is  not  so  good.  The  ratio  of  boys  to  girls  is  very  much 
lower  in  the  smaller  schools,  indicating  that  the  holding  power 
with  respect  to  boys  is  less  in  the  smaller  schools.  It  gradually  im- 
proves as  the  schools  increase  in  size,  but  is  best  in  the  case  of  54  rural 
high  schools  offering  vocational  courses.  The  study  of  403  rural 
high  schools  shown  in  Table  8  clearly  indicates  this  condition. 

Table  8. — A  Study  of  the  Relative  Percentage  of  Boys  and  Girls  in  the 
Different  Years  of  the  Rural  High  School  (403  Schools) 


Type  of  school 


1-49  pupils,  less  than  4  year 
schools 

1-49  pupils 

50-99  pupils 

100-149  pupils 

150  pupils  and  over 

For  all  the  403  high  schools .  . 

54  New  York  rural  high  schools 
offering  vocational  courses 

Village  and  rural  high  schools 
of  U.S.  (1917-18) 


First 

year 

Second  year 

Thirc 

year 

Fourtl 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

43.2 

56.8 

36.6 

63.4 

32.9 

67.1 

27.3 

44.9 

55.1 

39.7 

60.3 

37.2 

62.8 

34.8 

45.2 

54.8 

42.0 

58.0 

38.0 

62.0 

36.9 

44.4 

55.6 

42.6 

57.3 

41.9 

58.1 

38.5 

45.0 

55.0 

41.1 

58.9 

41.8 

58.2 

36.3 

44.8 

55.2 

41.2 

58.8 

39.4 

60.6 

36.7 

47.0 

53.0 

42.0 

58.0 

42.6 

57.4 

37.8 

43.8 

56.2 

41.3 

58.7 

39.4 

60.6 

36.8 

72.7 
65.2 
63.1 
61.5 
63.7 
63.3 

62.2 

63.2 


Per  cent 


Girls 


55 


59 


61 


63 


4th  year 


Diagram  3. — Percent  of  boys  and  girls  in  different  years  of  the  rural  high  schools 

24 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  RURAL  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  Teaching  Staff 

THE  data  with  regard  to  the  organization  of  the  teaching  staff 
of  the  New  York  rural  high  school  as  to  number  of  teachers 
and  percentage  of  men  and  women  indicate  that  over  one- 
half  of  the  schools  have  a  teaching  staff  of  three  instructors  or  less. 
In  all  New  York  rural  high  schools  the  relative  percentage  of  men 
is  exceptionally  low  as  compared  with  the  average  either  for  village 
and  rural  high  schools  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole  or  for  all 
high  schools  in  the  United  States  in  1918,  or  for  25  city  high  schools 
of  New  York  in  1918  as  they  appeared  in  alphabetical  order. 

Table  9. — The  Teaching  Staff  as  to  Number  per  School  and  Sex 
(405  Schools) 


Types  of  schools 

Average 
number  of 

teachers 
per  school 

Percentage 

that  men  are 

of  the  total 

number  of 

teachers 

Percentage 

that  women 

are  of  the 

total 

number  of 

teachers 

Total 

number  of 

schools 

reporting 

1-49,  less  than  4  years .... 

1-49 

50-99 

100-149 

150 

Average  for  the  405  schools 
25    city   high   schools   in 

New  York  State 

Village    and    rural    high 

schools  for  U.  S.,  1917- 

18 

All    high  schools,    U.    S., 

1917-18 

2.2 
3.0 
4.9 
6.8 
10.2 
4.3 

24.15 
31.57 
22.62 
24.06 
21.33 
26.71 

33.9 

33.66 

34.55 

75.85 
68.43 
77.38 
75.94 
78.67 
73.29 

66.1 

66.34 
65.45 

60 

162 

112 

49 

22 

405 

«S 


I  Men  teachers     C 
Per  cent 


I Women  teachers 


New  York 
rural 


U.S.  all 


Diagram  4. — Proportion  of  men  and  women  teachers  in  New  York  rural 
high  schools  compared  with  25  city  high  schools  of  New  York  State  and  with 
high  schools  of  the  United  States 


The  Organization  of  the  School  Day 
With  regard  to  the  organization  of  the  New  York  rural  high 
school,  a  detailed  study  of  over  400  schools  shows  a  wide  diversity. 
There  are,  however,  rather  definite  modes  around  which  the  schools 
group  themselves  in  respect  to  the  various  phases  of  school  organ- 
i sa lion.  The  most  common  plan  as  to  the  daily  program  of  classes 
is  that  of  the  eight-period  day.  In  the  larger  schools,  the  seven- 
period  day  is  most  frequently  found,  with  a  large  number  following 
the  eight-period  organization.  The  schools  with  a  high  school  en- 
rolment under  100,  or  84  percent  of  all  the  rural  high  schools  of 
the  State,  are  prevailingly  organized  on  the  basis  of  eight  periods  a 

26 


day,  but  with  a  strong  leaning  toward  nine  or  more  periods.  Five 
of  the  smaller  schools  reported  a  ten-period  day  and  one  school  re- 
ported 12  periods  in  the  daily  program. 

The  most  common  recitation  period  is  forty  minutes  in  length, 
with  71  schools  using  the  45  minute  period.     Twenty- three  of  the 

Table  10. — A  Study  of  the  Organization  of  402  Rural  High  Schools 
from  the  Standpoint  of  Number  of  Recitation  Periods  per  Day  and 
the  Length  of  the  Recitation  Period 


Number  of  high  schools 

grouped  according 

to 

pupil  enrolment 

Number  of 

periods  in 

school  day 

1-49 

1-49 

less  than 

full  four 

50-99 

100-149 

150  and 

Total 

4  years 

years 

over 

5 

2 

2 

6 

2 

1 

1 

1 

5 

7 

17 

29 

42 

26 

13 

127 

8 

29 

123 

65 

20 

8 

245 

9 

6 

6 

5 

17 

10 

1 

4 

5 

11 

12 

1 

1 

Total 

58 

162 

113 

47 

22 

402 

Length  of 

1-49 

1^9 

150  and 

recitation 

less  than 

full  four 

50-99 

100-149 

Total 

periods 

4  years 

years 

.SO 

2 

2 

4 

35 

12 

7 

2 

1 

22 

40 

27 

111 

78 

24 

9 

249 

45 

9 

15 

22 

17 

8 

71 

30+40 

4 

1 

5 

30+45 

i 

1 

35+40 

1 

10 

2 

2 

1 

16 

35+45 

s 

2 

2 

9 

40+55 

2 

13 

6 

2 

23 

60 

2 

2 

Total 

58 

162 

113 

47 

22 

402 

27 


smaller  schools  reporting  and  three  of  the  larger  schools  have 
periods  of  thirty-five  minutes  or  less.  A  considerable  number  of 
schools  have  periods  of  differing  lengths,  as  combinations  of  35  and 
40  or  of  35  and  45  minutes.  Only  two  schools  reported  an  organ- 
ization on  the  60  minute  period  basis.     (See  Table  10.) 

All  data  on  the  daily  program  of  the  rural  high  school,  both  from 
reports  from  principals  and  from  visitation  of  over  75  rural  high 
schools  in  all  sections  of  the  State,  point  definitely  to  the  conclusion 
that  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  divide  the  high  school  day  into  an 
excessively  large  number  of  periods.  They  also  point  to  a  fact 
related  to  the  former,  that  many  high  schools  have  periods  too 
short  for  efficient  high  school  work.  With  the  exception  of  an  al- 
most negligible  number  of  the  larger  schools,  the  length  of  the  reci- 
tation periods  is  too  short  to  permit  of  any  class-room  study  under 
supervision  or  for  the  adequate  development  of  a  genuine  lesson 
unit.  The  length  of  periods  and  the  number  in  a  day  when  com- 
bined with  the  facts  as  to  teaching  load  of  the  principal  (Table  11) 
and  the  teaching  load  of  the  high  school  teacher  (Table  19)  indi- 
cate clearly  a  need  of  reorganization  in  the  daily  program  of  the 
rural  high  school.  It  would  seem  that  it  might  be  highly  advisable 
to  decrease  the  number  of  recitation  periods  a  week  in  some  sub- 
jects if  that  were  the  only  means  of  reducing  the  number  of  periods 
in  a  day  and  thus  increasing  the  length  of  the  recitation  period. 
Further  reductions  might  very  well  be  made  through  alternation  of 
subjects.     (See  p.  46.) 


The  Work  of  the  Principal 
The  principal  of  the  rural  high  school  in  New  York  is  also  the 
principal  of  the  elementary  grades  of  the  school.  He  is  nominally 
at  least  responsible  for  the  organization,  administration,  and 
supervision  of  instruction  of  the  elementary  grades,  as  well  as  of  the 
high  school.  In  the  smaller  high  schools  of  two  or  three  teachers 
(one  being  the  principal)  in  the  secondary  or  academic  grades, 
there  are  from  three  to  five  teachers  in  the  elementary  grades. 
This  organization  makes  the  high  school  principal 's  work  complex 
and  difficult.     In  the  smaller  schools  he  has,  in  addition  to  his 

28 


principalshipwork,  a  large  teaching  load.  In  other  words,  the  daily 
teaching  load  of  the  rural  high  school  principal  in  New  York  is  as 
heavy  as  that  set  up  as  a  standard  for  high  school  instructors  in 
the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools. 
When  this  condition  is  considered  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  the 
principal  of  the  rural  high  school  has  in  his  charge  the  organization 
and  oversight  of  the  instruction  in  the  elementary  grades,  as  well 
as  in  the  high  school  proper,  it  becomes  more  serious.  If  the 
principal  is  to  have  time  to  perform  the  duties  that  should  devolve 
upon  him;  if  he  is  to  function  adequately  as  an  administrative 
officer  and  as  a  supervisor,  he  must,  it  would  seem,  have  relief 
from  so  much  class-room  teaching.  Otherwise  only  the  principal 
of  exceptional  ability  and  strength  will  develop  into  the  counselor 
of  his  pupils,  the  leader  of  his  teachers  or  of  his  board  and  com- 
munity in  educational  matters,  that  the  rural  high  school  principal 
must  be  if  efficient  high  schools  are  to  be  found  in  rural  com- 
munities. 

Table  11  gives  in  detail  the  facts  as  to  the  teaching  load  of  the 
principal  of  the  rural  high  school  as  reported  by  385  New  York 
rural  high  school  principals.  In  the  schools  doing  less  than  four 
years  of  high  school  work  the  median  teaching  load  a  day  for  prin- 
cipals is  seven  periods,  while  in  12  out  of  54  schools  of  this  class  re- 
porting the  principal  was  teaching  nine  or  more  periods  a  day  dur- 
ing the  school  year  of  1920-21.  In  the  four  year  high  schools  with 
an  enrolment  under  50,  the  median  principal  taught  six  periods  a 
day,  the  range  for  the  middle  50  percent  being  between  five  and 
seven  periods  and  with  63  principals  teaching  seven  periods  a  day 
or  more.  The  median  for  schools  with  a  high  school  enrolment 
of  50  and  above  is  3.5  periods  a  day,  while  for  all  schools  reporting 
the  median  is  five  periods  a  day.  For  385  schools,  96  principals, 
or  over  24  percent,  were  teaching  seven  periods  a  day  or  more. 
(See  Table  11.) 

The  median  principal  for  all  schools  with  a  high  school  enrol- 
ment under  50  gave  between  31  and  40  minutes  a  day  to  supervi- 
sion of  instruction.  Forty  principals  in  these  same  schools  gave 
no  time  to  supervision.  The  median  principal  in  schools  with  an 
enrolment  in  the  high  school  of  50  and  above  gave  61-70  minutes 

29 


Table  11. — The  Teaching  Load  oi 

the  Principal 

No.  of 

Schools 
less 
than 

4  years 
1-49 

Schools 
full 

Schools 

Schools 

Schools 

Total 

of 

Total 
of 

Grand 

total 

all 

schools 

minutes 

4  years 

50-99 

100-149 

150- 

schools 

schools 

per  day 

1-49 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(1)  and 

(3),  (4) 

(D 

(2) 

(2) 

and  (5) 

0 

1 

1 

3 

5 

4 

2 

12 

14 

20 

1 

1 

1 

40 

1 

6 

11 

4 

1 

21 

22 

60 

1 

3 

2 

3 

1 

8 

9 

80 

1 

1 

10 

4 

2 

2 

16 

18 

100 

2 

3 

5 

2 

2 

10 

12 

120 

11 

1 

2 

14 

14 

140 

7 

6 

7 

1 

7 

14 

21 

160 

1 

11 

19 

3 

1 

12 

23 

35 

180 

1 

16 

10 

5 

1 

17 

16 

33 

200 

7 

13 

14 

1 

20 

15 

35 

220 

4 

9 

5 

13 

5 

18 

240 

9 

23 

10 

32 

10 

42 

260 

2 

11 

2 

13 

2 

15 

280 

12 

29 

4 

41 

4 

45 

300 

3 

9 

1 

12 

1 

13 

320 

9 

16 

25 

25 

340 

2 

3 

1 

5 

i 

6 

360 

1 

6 

7 

7 

No.    of 

schools 

54 

158 

108 

44 

21 

212 

173 

385 

Median 

270 

240 

160 

90 

60 

240 

140 

200 

First 

quar- 

tile .... 

220 

200 

120 

40 

40 

200 

80 

140 

Third 

quar- 

tile.... 

300 

280 

200 

140 

100 

280 

180 

260 

Number 

of 

periods 

taught 

daily.  . 

7 

6 

4 

2 

1.5 

6 

3.5 

5 

a  day  to  supervision.  The  median  principal  for  all  schools  of  the 
380  reporting  on  this  item  gave  31  to  40  minutes  a  day  to  super- 
vision of  instruction.  For  all  schools  reporting,  93  principals,  or 
over  24  percent,  gave  less  than  20  minutes  a  day  to  supervision. 
(See  Table  12.) 

3° 


Table  12. 


■The  Total  Amount  of  Time  per  Day  Devoted  by  the  High 
School  Principal  to  Supervision  of  Instruction 


Time  in 
minutes 

Schools 
less 
than 

4  years 
1-49 
(1) 

Schools 

full 
4  years 

1-49 

(2) 

Schools 

50-99 

(3) 

Schools 

100-149 

(4) 

Schools 
150- 

(5) 

Total 
of 

schools 

(1)  and 

(2) 

Total 

of 
schools 

(3), (4) 
and  (5) 

Grand 

total 

all 

schools 

0 

10 

30 

1 

2 

1 

40 

4 

44 

1-10 

7 

8 

3 

15 

3 

18 

11-20 

9 

13 

6 

3 

22 

9 

31 

21-30 

3 

19 

11 

1 

22 

12 

34 

31^10 

13 

39 

25 

4 

3 

52 

32 

84 

41-50 

5 

7 

6 

1 

1 

12 

8 

20 

51-60 

13 

9 

6 

13 

15 

28 

61-70 

4 

2 

i 

4 

3 

7 

71-80 

1 

9 

12 

4 

i 

10 

17 

27 

81-90 

1 

4 

8 

3 

i 

5 

12 

17 

91-100 

1 

2 

4 

2 

4 

3 

10 

13 

101-110 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

111-120 

4 

5 

1 

1 

4 

7 

11 

121-130 

2 

1 

1 

3 

1 

4 

131-140 

3 

1 

7 

i 

3 

9 

12 

141-150 

1 

1 

2 

1 

3 

4 

151-160 

6 

2 

3 

11 

11 

161-170 

171-180 

3 

*4 

'7 

'7 

181-190 

191-200 

"l 

1 

"l 

1 

3 

201-240 

2 

2 

2 

No.  of 

schools 

53 

159 

104 

44 

20 

212 

168 

380 

Median 

21-30 

31^0 

50 

81-90 

91-100 

31-40 

61-70 

31-40 

First 

quar- 
tile 

1-10 

1-10 

31-40 

41-50 

61-70 

1-10 

31-40 

21-30 

Third 

quar- 
tile .... 

31-40 

51-60 

81-90 

131-140 

151-160 

41-50 

101-110 

71-80 

Supervision  of  Instruction. — The  median  principal  in  schools 
with  a  high  school  enrolment  under  50  gave  one  to  10  minutes  a  day 
to  supervision  of  high  school  instruction,  and  78  principals  in 
schools  of  this  class  gave  no  time  to  high  school  class-room  super- 
vision. The  same  principal  gave  from  11  to  20  minutes  a  day  to 
supervision  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  grades,  and  43  prin- 


31 


cipals  in  schools  of  this  class  did  no  supervising  of  instruction  of  the 
elementary  grades.  In  the  schools  with  a  high  school  enrolment 
of  50  and  over,  the  median  principal  gave  1 1  to  20  minutes  to  super- 
vision of  instruction  in  the  high  school  and  31  to  40  minutes  to  the 
elementary  grades.  In  these  schools  11  principals  gave  no  time 
to  supervision  in  the  high  school  and  four  gave  no  time  to  super- 
vision in  the  grades.  For  all  schools  reporting,  the  median  prin- 
cipal gave  11  to  20  minutes  a  day  to  supervision  of  instruction  in 
the  high  school  and  21  to  30  minutes  to  the  elementary  grades. 
One  hundred  seventy-one  principals,  or  over  44  percent,  gave  less 
than  10  minutes  a  day  to  high  school  supervision,  and  91  principals, 
or  over  24  percent,  less  than  10  minutes  a  day  to  supervision  in  the 
grades.     (See  Tables  13  and  14.) 


Table  13.- 

—Total  Amount 

of  Time  per  Day  Devoted  by  the  High  School 

Principal  to  Supervision  of  High  School  Instruction 

No.  of 
minutes 

Schools 
less 
than 

4  years 

1-49 

(1) 

Schools 

full 

4  years 

1-19 

(2) 

Schools 

50-99 

(3) 

Schools 
100-149 

(4) 

Schools 
150- 

(5) 

Total 

of 
schools 
(1)  and 

(2) 

Total 

of 
schools 

(3), (4) 
and  (5) 

Grand 

total 

of  all 

schools 

0 

25 

53 

8 

2 

1 

78 

11 

89 

1-10 

14 

35 

26 

6 

1 

49 

33 

82 

11-20 

9 

36 

27 

10 

5 

45 

42 

87 

21-30 

1 

10 

7 

3 

1 

11 

11 

22 

31^0 

3 

13 

18 

12 

3 

16 

33 

49 

41-50 

3 

6 

3 

1 

3 

10 

13 

51-60 

3 

4 

7 

3 

2 

7 

12 

19 

61-70 

1 

1 

1 

71-80 

1 

3 

3 

4 

1 

10 

11 

81-90 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

91-100 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

4 

101-110 

111-120 

1 

i 

1 

No.  of 

schools 

56 

157 

104 

44 

20 

213 

168 

381 

Median 

1-10 

1-10 

11-20 

31-40 

31-40 

1-10 

11-20 

11-20 

First 

quar- 

tile 

1-10 

11-20 

11-20 

1-10 

1-10 

Third 

quar- 

tile.... 

11-20 

11-20 

31-40 

40 

71-80 

11-20 

31-40 

31-40 

32 


Table  14. — Total  Amount  of  Time  per  Day  Devoted  by  the  High  School 
Principal  to  Supervision  of  Instruction  in  the  Elementary  Grades 


No.  of 
minutes 

Schools 
less 
than 

4  years 
1-49 

Schools 
full 

Schools 

Schools 

Schools 

Total 
of 

Total 
of 

Grand 
total 
of  all 

schools 

4  years 
1-49 

50-99 
(3) 

100-149 

(4) 

150- 

(5) 

schools 
(1)  and 

schools 
(3),  (4) 

(1) 

(2) 

(2) 

and  (5) 

0 

10 

33 

1 

1 

2 

43 

4 

47 

1-10 

11 

20 

10 

3 

31 

13 

44 

11-20 

12 

35 

25 

4 

3 

47 

32 

79 

21-30 

5 

22 

15 

3 

1 

27 

19 

46 

31-40 

9 

30 

15 

15 

39 

30 

69 

41-50 

1 

3 

10 

5 

3 

4 

18 

22 

51-60 

4 

11 

3 

2 

4 

16 

20 

61-70 

1 

4 

1 

1 

1 

5 

3 

8 

71-80 

3 

6 

4 

2 

3 

12 

15 

81-90 

1 

2 

1 

1 

3 

2 

5 

91-100 

2 

1 

1 

4 

4 

101-110 

111-120 

1 

4 

1 

1 

1 

6 

7 

121-130 

1 

1 

1 

131-140 

141-150 

i 

1 

1 

151-160 

1 

1 

2 

2 

161-170 

171-180 

1 

1 

i 

No.  of 

schools 

51 

157 

103 

42 

18 

208 

163 

371 

Median 

11-20 

11-20 

31-40 

31-40 

50 

11-20 

31-40 

21-30 

First 

quar- 

tile... 

1-10 

1-10 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

1-10 

11-20 

11-20 

Third 

quar- 

tile.... 

31-40 

31-40 

51-60 

71-80 

71-80 

31-40 

51-60 

31-40 

Time  Given  to  Office  Work. — The  median  amount  of  time 
given  to  office  work,  including  clerical  work,  conferences  with 
teachers  and  counseling  pupils,  was  for  schools  with  a  high  school 
enrolment  of  less  than  50  pupils,  31-40  minutes  a  day  and  for  the 
larger  schools  71-80  minutes  a  day.  For  the  smaller  schools  this 
is  not  a  true  index  of  the  time  taken  up  by  clerical  work  in  the 
office,  as  many  principals  reported  that  this  was  the  time  available 
for  consultation  with  pupils  and  teachers  and  did  not  include  the 

3  33 


lime  given  to  clerical  work  which  was  done  after  school,  evenings, 
and  Saturdays.     (For  details  see  Table  15.) 

Table  15. — Total  Amount  of  Time  per  Day  Devoted  by  the  High  School 
Principal  to  Office  Work 


No.  of 
minutes 

Schools 
less 
than 

4  years 

1-49 

(1) 

Schools 

full 
4  years 

1-49 

(2) 

Schools 
50-99 

(3) 

Schools 
100-149 

(4) 

Schools 
150 

(5) 

Total 

of 
schools 
(1)  and 

(2) 

Total 

of 
schools 
(3),  (4) 
and  (5) 

Grand 

total 

of  all 

schools 

0 

5 

15 

1 

20 

1 

21 

1-10 

7 

7 

2 

2 

14 

4 

18 

11-20 

9 

17 

6 

2 

1 

26 

9 

35 

21-30 

5 

21 

5 

1 

26 

6 

32 

31^0 

7 

22 

22 

5 

3 

29 

30 

59 

41-50 

9 

7 

4 

9 

11 

20 

51-60 

3 

16 

9 

3 

1 

19 

13 

32 

61-70 

1 

4 

2 

1 

5 

3 

8 

71-80 

6 

13 

14 

6 

3 

19 

23 

42 

81-90 

2 

3 

1 

2 

2 

6 

8 

91-100 

1 

9 

5 

1 

2 

10 

8 

18 

101-110 

2 

2 

2 

111-120 

5 

7 

1 

1 

5 

9 

14 

121-130 

3 

2 

5 

5 

131-140 

2 

1 

3 

3 

141-150 

1 

2 

i 

1 

3 

4 

151-160 

1 

1 

i 

2 

2 

4 

161-170 

171-180 

2 

3 

5 

5 

181-190 

191-200 

1 

*2 

3 

3 

1 

8 

9 

231-240 

4 

2 

6 

6 

291-300 

2 

5 

1 

8 

8 

No.  of 

schools 

45 

143 

100 

46 

19 

188 

165 

353 

Median 

21  30 

31-40 

51-60 

71-80 

81-90 

31-40 

71-80 

41-50 

First 

quar- 

tile 

1-10 

11-20 

31-40 

41-50 

51-60 

11-20 

31-40 

21-30 

Third 

quar- 

tile. . . . 

51-60 

51-60 

110 

171-180 

151-160 

51-60 

111-120 

81-90 

Clerical  Assistance. — One  of  the  perplexing  problems  of  the 
principal  of  the  rural  high  school  as  forced  upon  the  attention  of  the 

34 


survey  field  workers  in  their  direct  contact  with  the  high  school 
principal  at  work  and  as  brought  out  in  replies  of  398  principals  is 
the  lack  of  clerical  help.  A  great  deal  of  the  principal's  time  and 
energy  is  given  over  to  the  office  work  that  should  be  done  by  a 
clerk.  Principals  reported  that  they  spent  Saturdays  and  evenings 
in  making  out  and  filing  records  and  reports.  Such  work  performed 
at  the  time  it  is  cannot  fail  to  operate  against  the  efficiency  of  the 
principal's  work  as  teacher  and  director  of  the  school.  It  also 
means  that  insufficient  records  are  kept  in  the  majority  of  the 
rural  high  schools. 

In  detail  the  facts  reported  by  398  principals  show  that  308,  or 
over  77  percent,  of  them  had  no  clerical  assistance.  Over  87  percent 
of  the  principals  had  either  no  clerical  assistance  or  only  the  volun- 
tary, unpaid  assistance  of  high  school  teachers.  Six  principals  re- 
ported clerical  assistance  from  pupils,  fifteen  principals  got  clerical 
assistance  from  teachers  who  received  extra  pay  for  this  work,  and 
3 1  principals  had  paid  clerks  for  either  all  or  part  time.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  facts  as  reported  by  the  398  principals  (Table 
16): 

Table  16. — The  Clerical  Assistance  Given  the  Principal 


Types  of  schools 

Amount  of  clerical  help 

1-49 
less 
than 
four 
years 

1-49 

50-99 

100-149 

150- 

Total 

None 

54 
1 
3 
2 

2 
2 

149 
1 
7 
5 
2 
3 

2 

74 
2 

25 
4 
2 
2 

5 

27 

1 

11 

10 

3 

7 

4 

4 
1 

7 

10 
2 
8 

2 

308 

Pupils 

Teachers 

6 

53 

Paid  clerks 

31 

Full  time 

Part  time 

9 

22 

Teachers    paid    extra    for 
clerical  work ' 

15 

60 

162 

105 

49 

22 

Also  included  in  data  under  teachers. 
35 


Direction  of  Pupil  Activities. — The  amount  of  time  given 
each  day  to  direction  and  supervision  of  pupil  activities  is  remark- 
ably uniform  for  all  principals  reporting  on  this  phase  of  their  work. 
The  median  amount  of  time  a  day  given  to  such  activities  was  11  to 
20  minutes,  while  76  principals,  57  of  them  from  schools  with  a 
high  school  enrolment  under  50,  reported  no  time  given  to  pupil 
activities.  This  fact  correlates  closely  with  the  facts  shown  by 
Table  28,  which  shows  that  the  rural  high  schools  of  New  York  give 
comparatively  little  attention  and  emphasis  to  extra-class-room 
activities  as  a  part  of  high  school  education.     (See   Table  17.) 


Table  17.- 

-Total  Amount 

OF  TlMI 

per  School  Day  Devoted  by  the  High 

School  Principal  to  Pupil  Actt 

TTIES 

Schools 
less 
than 

Schools 

Total 

Total 

Grand 
total 
of  all 

schools 

No.  of 

full 

Schools 

Schools 

Schools 

of 

of 

4  years 

50-99 

100-149 

150- 

schools 

schools 

minutes 

4  years 
1-49 

(1) 

1-49 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(1)  and 
(2) 

(3), (4), 
(5) 

0 

13 

44 

10 

7 

2 

57 

19 

76 

1-10 

13 

18 

20 

8 

5 

31 

33 

64 

11-20 

5 

29 

23 

13 

4 

34 

40 

74 

21-30 

7 

15 

18 

1 

1 

22 

20 

42 

31-40 

2 

19 

15 

9 

5 

21 

29 

50 

41-50 

2 

2 

5 

1 

1 

4 

7 

11 

51-60 

1 

9 

2 

1 

10 

3 

13 

61-70 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

71-80 

2 

3 

2 

3 

5 

81-90 

91-100 

"l 

2 

2 

101-110 

1 

1 

1 

111-120 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

4 

121-130 

1 

1 

1 

No.  of 

schools 

44 

140 

99 

44 

18 

1S4 

161 

345 

Median 

1-10 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

First 

quar- 

tile.... 

1-10 

1-10 

1-10 

1-10 

1-10 

Third 

quar- 

tile .... 

21-30 

21-30 

31-40 

31-40 

31-40 

21-30 

31-40 

31-40 

36 


Time  Devoted  to  Non-Pupil  Activities. — The  amount  of  time 
devoted  to  non-pupil  activities  related  to  the  educational  interests 
of  the  school  was  reported  definitely  by  only  298  principals.  The 
median  amount  of  time  reported  by  all  schools  was  21  to  30  min- 

Table  18. — Total  Amount  of  Time  per  Day  Devoted  by  High  School 
Principal  to  Non-Pupil  Outside  Activities.  (Data  from  298  Schools 
Reporting  on  Item) 


No.  of 
minutes 

Schools 

less 

than 

4  years 

1-49 

(1) 

Schools 

full 
4  years 

1-49 

(2) 

Schools 
50-99 

(3) 

Schools 
100-149 

(4) 

Schools 
150- 

(5) 

Total 

schools 

(1)  and 

(2) 

Total 
schools 

(3),  (4) 
and  (5) 

Grand 

total 

of  all 

schools 

0 

3 

21 

14 

2 

24 

16 

40 

1-10 

4 

9 

6 

2 

1 

13 

9 

22 

11-20 

5 

17 

13 

6 

3 

22 

22 

44 

21-30 

9 

19 

15 

6 

2 

28 

23 

51 

31-40 

6 

9 

12 

5 

2 

15 

19 

34 

41-50 

6 

2 

2 

1 

6 

5 

11 

51-60 

6 

18 

8 

5 

2 

24 

15 

39 

61-70 

1 

2 

1 

2 

3 

71-80 

4 

4 

4 

i 

4 

9 

13 

81-90 

2 

1 

1 

2 

2 

4 

91-100 

9 

2 

1 

2 

9 

5 

14 

101-110 

111-120 

1 

3 

2 

4 

2 

6 

121-130 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

131-140 

i 

1 

1 

1 

2 

141-150 

l 

1 

1 

1 

2 

151-160 

1 

1 

1 

161-180 

l 

"l 

i 

1 

3 

4 

181-200 

2 

3 

1 

2 

4 

6 

No.  of 

schools 

36 

123 

85 

37 

17 

159 

139 

298 

Median 

21-30 

21-30 

21-30 

31-40 

41-50 

21-30 

21-30 

21-30 

First 

quar- 

tile.... 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

21-30 

11-20 

11-20 

11-20 

Third 

quar- 

tile.... 

31-40 

51-60 

51-60 

51-60 

81-90 

51-60 

51-60 

51-60 

Note. — Many  of  the  principals  reported  that  they  did  not  give  a  definite  reply 
to  this  item  because  they  found  it  almost  impossible  to  give  an  accurate  estimate 
of  the  time.  The  majority  of  the  principals  of  the  smaller  schools  reported  that 
all  such  time  was  given  outside  the  regular  school  day. 

37 


Table  19. — Total  Distribution  of  the  Principal's  Time   During  the 

School  Day 


Time  in 
minutes 

Teaching 

load  of 

high 

school 

principals 
No.  of 

principals 

Total 

time 
devoted 
to  super- 
vision 

Super- 
vision 
of  high 
school 
instruc- 
tion 

Super- 
vision 

of 
grades 

Office 

Pupil 
activ- 
ities 

Out- 
side 

activ- 
ities 

0 

14 

44 

89 

47 

21 

76 

40 

1-10 

18 

82 

44 

18 

64 

22 

11-20 

i 

31 

87 

79 

35 

74 

44 

21-30 

34 

22 

46 

32 

42 

51 

31-40 

22 

84 

49 

69 

59 

50 

34 

41-50 

20 

13 

22 

20 

11 

11 

51-60 

9 

28 

19 

20 

32 

13 

39 

61-70 

7 

1 

8 

8 

2 

3 

71-80 

IS 

27 

11 

15 

42 

5 

13 

81-90 

17 

3 

5 

8 

4 

91-100 

12 

13 

14 

4 

18 

2 

14 

101-110 

3 

2 

1 

111-120 

14 

11 

1 

h 

14 

4 

6 

121-130 

4 

i 

5 

1 

2 

131-140 

21 

12 

3 

2 

141-150 

4 

i 

4 

2 

151-160 

35 

11 

2 

4 

1 

161-170 

4 

171-180 

33 

"l 

1 

5 

6 

181-190 

191-200 

35 

"l 

9 

201-210 

211-220 

18 

221-230 

231-240 

42 

"l 

6 

241-250 

251-260 

15 

261-270 

271-280 

45 

281-290 

291-300 

13 

8 

320 

25 

340 

6 

360 

7 

No.  of  schools 

385 

380 

381 

371 

353 

345 

298 

Median 

200 

31-40 

11-20 

21-30 

41-50 

11-20 

21-30 

First  quartile 

140 

21-30 

1-10 

11-20 

21-30 

11-20 

Third    quar- 

tile   

260 

71-80 

31-40 

31-40 

81-90 

31-40 

51-60 

33 


Outside  activities^ 


Total  320  minutes 
Diagram  S. — Distribution  of  the  principal's  time  during  the  school  day. 
Figures  represent  the  median  number  of  minutes  devoted  to  each  phase  of 
his  work 

utes  a  day.  Other  principals  reported  that  they  gave  a  large 
amount  of  time  to  such  work,  but  did  it  all  out  of  school  hours  and 
found  it  hard  to  give  any  accurate  estimate.  (See  Table  18.) 
Table  19  summarizes  the  work  of  the  high  school  principal  for  each 
day  in  the  rural  high  schools  of  New  York,  and  shows  that  the 
median  principal  gives  each  day  five  periods  to  teaching;  one  period 
to  supervision  of  instruction,  11  to  20  minutes  of  it  being  devoted  to 
the  high  school  and  21  to  30  minutes  to  the  elementary  grades; 
approximately  50  minutes  to  office  work ;  1 1  to  20  minutes  to  pupil 
activities;  and  21  to  30  minutes  to  non-pupil  activities  related  to 
school  work. 

Teaching  Load  of  Teachers 
The  data  on  the  daily  teaching  load  of  the  high  school  teacher 
(not  including  the  principal),  as  shown  by  the  daily  schedule  of  913 
teachers  in  the  New  York  rural  high  schools  in  1920-21,  shows  the 
following  facts:  The  median  number  of  subjects  handled  by 
teachers  in  schools  with  an  enrolment  under  50  was  3.8,  with  over 
20  percent  of  the  teachers  in  these  schools  giving  daily  instruction 
in  five  or  more  subjects.  In  schools  with  a  high  school  enrolment 
of  50  to  99,  the  median  number  of  subjects  handled  was  3.2,  with 

39 


Table  20. — The  High  School  Teacher's  Daily  Teaching  Load,  Expressed 

in  Terms  of — 

(A)  Number  of  different  subjects  taught 

(B)  Number  of  periods  of  class-room  teaching 

(C)  Number  of  periods  on  duty,  teaching  plus  study-room  supervision 


Number  of 
subjects 
taught 

(A) 


Number 

of 
teachers 


Number  of 

periods  of 

Number 

class-room 

of 

teaching 

teachers 

(B) 

Number  of 
periods  of 
teaching  and 
study- room 
supervision 
(C) 


Number 

of 
teachers 


Is  with  an  enrolment  of  1-49  pupils 


1 

10 

4 

5 

5 

22 

2 

71 

5 

59 

6 

60 

3 

107 

6 

122 

7 

97 

4 

79 

7 

83 

8 

141 

5 

48 

8 

59 

9 

10 

6 

17 

9 

2 

10 

3 

7 

4 

10 

3 

11 

3 

8 

11 

3 

12 

Median. .  .3.8 

336 

6.8 

336 

7.8 

336 

II.  High  schools  with  an  enrolment  of  50-99  pupils 


1 

18 

4 

14 

4 

2 

89 

5 

71 

5 

25 

3 

71 

6 

103 

6 

44 

4 

39 

7 

41 

7 

101 

5 

24 

8 

14 

8 

71 

6 

3 

9 

2 

9 

4 

7 

1 

10 

10 

Median. .  .3.2 

245 

6.3 

245 

7.5 

245 

III.  High  schools  with  an  enrolment  of  100  and  above 


1 

70 

3 

4 

4 

1 

2 

126 

4 

31 

5 

56 

3 

87 

5 

97 

6 

96 

4 

32 

6 

133 

7 

124 

5 

13 

7 

60 

8 

55 

6 

4 

8 

7 

9 

Median...  2. 7 

332 

6.2 

332 

7.1 

332 

IV. 

Total  for  all  high  schools 

1 

98 

3 

4 

4 

1 

2 

286 

4 

50 

5 

103 

3 

265 

5 

227 

6 

200 

4 

150 

6 

358 

7 

322 

5 

85 

7 

184 

8 

267 

6 

24 

8 

80 

9 

14 

7 

5 

<) 

4 

10 

3 

8 

10 

3 

11 

3 

9 

11 

3 

12 

Median. .  .3.3 

913 

6.4 

913 

7.4 

913 

40 


Per  cent 

100 


50 


Size  of  high  schools- enrolment 
_  1-47    " 50^99     —  —  100* 


1                 1 
Subjects  taught  (A) 

Usd 

tan        \ 

*_     ^^ 

\ 

N 

■^      ^^^ 

\ 

1                     ! 

:               ; 

j               < 

l                    ! 

>                    t 

7 

Subjects 


100 


10  11 


100 


75 


50 


N 

r 

erlods 

on  dut> 

r 

'  (O 

Median 

\ 

1  x\ 

V 

%    \ 

V 

x\ 

3                i 

I 

&               1 

i            1 

3                < 

i            l 

0               11 

Periods 


Diagram  6. — The  rural  high  school  teacher's  daily  teaching  load.  (A)  Percent 
of  teachers  teaching  the  number  of  subjects  shown  or  more.  (B)  Percent  of 
teachers  teaching  the  number  of  periods  shown  or  more.  (C)  Percent  of  teachers 
on  duty,  teaching  and  class-room  supervision,  the  number  of  periods  shown 
or  more 


4i 


many  giving  instruction  in  as  many  as  four  and  five  subjects.  For 
schools  with  an  enrolment  above  100,  the  median  number  of  sub- 
jects handled  was  2.7,  with  many  giving  instruction  in  four  and 
five  subjects. 

For  schools  with  a  high  school  enrolment  under  50,  the  median 
number  of  recitations  a  day  was  6.8.  The  significant  fact  here, 
however,  is  that  67  teachers,  or  more  than  19  percent,  taught  eight 
or  more  periods  a  day,  while  eight  teachers  taught  nine  or  more 
periods  a  day.  In  schools  with  an  enrolment  of  50  to  99,  the  me- 
dian teaching  load  was  6.3  periods,  with  22  percent  of  the  instructors 
teaching  seven  or  more  a  day.  In  schools  with  an  enrolment  of  100 
and  above,  the  daily  teaching  load  was  6.2  periods.  For  all  rural 
high  schools  the  median  number  of  recitations  a  day  for  each  teacher 
was  practically  six  and  a  half,  with  30  percent  of  the  instructors 
teaching  seven  periods  or  more. 

The  median  number  of  periods  a  day  for  each  teacher  in  instruc- 
tion and  supervision  of  the  study  room  in  the  smaller  high  schools 
was  7.8,  with  157  teachers,  or  46  percent,  carrying  a  load  of  eight 
periods  or  more.  In  schools  with  an  enrolment  of  50  to  99,  the 
median  number  of  periods  of  teaching  and  study-room  supervision 
was  7.5,  and  for  schools  with  an  enrolment  of  100  or  more  it  was 
7.1  periods  a  day.  For  all  rural  high  schools  the  number  of  periods 
a  day  for  each  teacher  in  teaching  and  study-room  supervision  was 
7.4,  but  with  287,  or  over  31  percent  of  the  teachers  reporting,  hav- 
ing a  daily  schedule  of  eight  periods  or  more  given  to  class-room 
instruction  and  study-room  supervision.     (Table  20.) 

The  study  of  the  teaching  load  in  the  rural  high  schools  of  New 
York,  both  for  principals  and  teachers,  shows  that  it  is  far  in  excess 
of  that  regarded  as  standard  in  the  United  States.  Many  of  the 
State  departments  of  education  are  recommending  in  their  State 
courses  of  study  for  high  schools  that  five  or  six  periods  a  day  be 
the  maximum  teaching  load  for  instructors  in  high  schools.  As 
examples,  West  Virginia  and  Virginia  recommend  five,  and  Indiana, 
New  Jersey,  Missouri,  and  Florida  six  periods.  The  North  Central 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  recommends  five 
periods  a  day  for  the  high  school  instructor  and  will  not  admit  to 
membership  any  school  requiring  more  than  six  periods  a  day.     In 

42 


the  light  of  these  standards  New  York  conditions,  particularly  in 
the  smaller  schools,  seem  very  unsatisfactory.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  the  schools  with  a  pupil  enrolment  under  50. 

The  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  in  the  rural  high  schools  of 
New  York  offsets  in  some  degree  the  excessive  teaching  load  as 
measured  by  the  amount  of  daily  teaching  and  study-room  super- 
vision. The  average  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  in  the  rural 
high  school  was  17,  as  compared  with  28  pupils  per  teacher  in  a 
random  selection  of  twenty-five  city  high  schools  of  New  York. 
While  the  number  of  subjects  handled  by  the  individual  instructor 
and  the  number  of  periods  of  teaching  in  the  rural  high  schools  are 
very  high,  the  number  of  pupil  hours  is  comparatively  low.  The 
significant  facts  are,  however,  the  wide  range  of  subjects  handled 
by  the  teacher  in  the  rural  high  school  and  the  large  number  of 
periods  of  class-room  instruction. 

Size  of  Classes 

A  large  percentage  of  the  classes  in  the  smaller  schools  contained 
five  or  less  pupils.  A  study  as  to  the  size  of  classes  in  184  rural  high 
schools  (a  random  selection),  distributed  among  the  several  classes 
of  high  schools  based  on  number  of  high  school  pupils  enrolled, 
showed  the  following  facts.  The  median  class  in  schools  with  an 
enrolment  under  50  contained  6.8  pupils;  in  schools  with  50-99 
pupils,  11.6  pupils;  in  schools  with  100  to  149  pupils,  16.3  pupils; 
and  in  schools  with  over  150  pupils,  18.2  pupils.  In  schools  with 
an  enrolment  under  50,  over  36  percent  of  the  classes  contained  but 
five  pupils  or  less;  and  in  schools  with  50  to  99  pupils,  approximately 
1 8  per  cent  of  the  classes  contained  five  pupils  or  less.   (See  Table  2 1 .) l 

It  would  seem  that  the  problem  of  reducing  the  teaching  load  in 
the  rural  high  schools  is  closely  related  to  the  problem  of  organiza- 
tion and  administration  of  classes.  It  is  probably  not  feasible  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  subjects  offered  in  the  rural  high  school.  In 
fact,  if  the  rural  high  school  is  to  meet  the  demands  upon  it,  the 
number  will  need  rather  to  be  increased. 

If  the  rural  high  school  is  to  offer  an  adequate  range  of  subjects, 

its  per  pupil  cost  of  instruction  must  undoubtedly  be  higher  than 

'For  size  of  classes  in  different  subjects  see  discussion  on  curriculum,  Chapter  V. 

43 


Q  >-J  fa 

«  O  > 

►J  Oi  O 

rf  55  « 

?:  Z  p 

c/>  S3  ** 


:  "■■ 


v  •J  o 

fa  o 

o  o  h 
«  as  55 

a   U   W 
BC/2   S 

12-1 

p~  % 
*  fa  M 

S  O  S3 

5  " 

(J 

O 


H   E 


o§ 


OS    _ 

p.   55   u 

2  550 


o 


■I. 


S3  33  <k 

o  o5 


— 
jo 
<  *-< 

M 

x 
O 


2  s 
S3 

."  w 

<i  o 

w  <  " 
en  < 


u 


GO 

O  S3 
fa  O  O 
O  B3°° 
WUn 
tsi  C/3  CN 

^s;  ••> 

Jigs 


H  2. 


rt.fi  « 


o  — 


t>«  ©  ©  cs 

y-l  <-i  CN  fN 


**  ■*  ©v  -- 
<r;  O  oc  cn 


vd  —  o  06 


10  -*  00  *+ 

vOOOO 


■*  ©  <^  o 

—  CN 


O>fO00'- 
t^.  —  O  o 
CN  CN 


©  O  O  00 
"">  fN  «-i 


—  t^  00  "* 


°-  ^  jt_ 
Ti8£ 

rH  10  —  — 


I--.   00   Tj< 

—  00  00 


q  q 

CN  "* 


©;©;■*      ■*  q 
fNood      -h  cn 


c  o 
•<*  © 


O  ©v  PC 

vO  O 

00 

O  O 

l/j  l~-  00 

«-i  CN 

O  O 
p<0  -h 

(*3 

O  O 
—  CN 

XO't        »0  PO 


Coon       10  r*3 
O  1/3  10        ro  \0 

r^  CN  *-i        .-h  CN 


©OX 

0 1-- 


lO  CN 


—  "  CM 


o  ta 


44 


28 


Schools  with 

enrolment 

1-49 

Per  cent 


20 


Under  5   10 

5   to   to   to   to 

9    14   19   24 
Size  of  class 


Schools  with 

enrolment 

100-149 

Per  cent 


7 

ll 


to 
29 


Under  5    10   15   20   25  30+ 
5   to   to   to   to   to 
9    14   19   24   29 


Schools  with 

enrolment 

50-99 

Per  cent 


Under     5        10       15       20       25     30* 


5         to      to       to       to       to 
9       14       19       24       29 
Size  of  class 


40 


Schools  with 

enrolment 

150+ 

Per  cent 


15 


12 

I, 


Under   5    10  15  20  25   30* 

5   to    to  to  to  to 

9    14  19  24  29 

Size  of  class 


Size  of  cliisa 

Diagram  7. — The  size  of  classes  in  the  different  types  of  rural  high  schools 

45 


that  of  the  city  high  schools.  In  many  cases,  however,  it  would 
seem  that  the  classes  with  an  enrolment  under  five  might  be  met  a 
less  number  of  periods  a  week,  and  because  of  the  semitutorial 
nature  of  such  instruction  still  maintain  a  good  standard.  Another 
possibility  of  relieving  teachers  to  some  extent  of  the  heavy  teach- 
ing load  is  the  alternation  of  classes.  By  beginning  certain  sub- 
jects, as  French  or  Latin,  every  second  year  instead  of  every  year, 
and  by  alternating  subjects  like  third  and  fourth  year  English,  as  is 
now  done  in  many  schools  in  chemistry  and  physics,  much  economy 
in  number  of  instruction  hours  might  be  effected.  One  or  both  the 
plans  might  be  used  in  a  small  high  school  to  reduce  the  number  of 
hours  of  instruction  and  give  the  high  school  teacher  more  time  for 
the  preparation  of  his  teaching  plans,  and,  what  is  of  almost  equal 
importance,  more  time  for  the  encouragement  and  guidance  of  pupil 
activities. 

Reorganization  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades,  either  in 

the  Modification  of  the  Course  of  Study  or  of  Organization, 

to  Link  Them  up  with  the  High  School 

The  information  given  by  405  principals  in  reply  to  this  item 
shows  that  approximately  25  percent  of  the  rural  high  schools  have 
made  no  change  in  the  8-4  plan  of  organization  to  link  up  the  ele- 
mentary grades  closer  with  the  high  school.  Approximately  75 
percent  of  the  schools  have  used  some  plan  to  relate  the  work  of  the 
grades  with  that  of  the  high  school.  An  analysis  of  the  means 
employed,  however,  shows  that  they  are  of  the  more  doubtful  types, 
both  from  the  standpoint  of  increased  interest  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils  and  from  the  standpoint  of  the  fitness  of  the  means  to  the 
maturity  of  the  pupils.  Comments  from  several  of  the  principals 
indicate  that  the  underlying  reasons  for  the  most  common  changes, 
placing  high  school  subjects,  such  as  Latin  and  algebra,  in  the  ele- 
mentary grades,  were  not  those  of  better  fitting  the  school  work  to 
the  pupils  in  a  vital  sense,  but  to  secure  an  extra  year  for  elementary 
high  school  mathematics  and  the  first  two  years  of  Latin  and  hence 
give  the  pupils  a  longer  time  to  prepare  for  the  Regents  examina- 
tions in  those  subjects.  Over  35  percent  of  the  schools  reporting 
were  requiring  high  school  algebra  in  the  8th  grade  and  over  10  per- 

46 


cent  of  the  schools  were  requiring  Latin  in  the  8th  grade.  Ten 
percent  of  the  schools  were  giving  science,  in  nearly  every  instance 
high  school  biology,  in  the  8th  grade,  a  doubtful  procedure  consider- 
ing the  nature  of  the  New  York  State  course  in  biology.  More 
vital  changes  reported  by  several  schools  were:  promotions  by 
subject,  mentioned  by  19  schools,  departmental  instruction,  men- 
tioned by  33  schools,  and  sitting  in  the  general  study  room  with 
high  school  pupils  given  by  32  principals  of  the  smaller  high  schools. 
Other  means  given  were  commercial  subjects  in  the  upper  grades, 
drawing,  literature,  civics  and  history.     (See  Table  22.) 


Table  22. — Reorganization  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades  Either  in 
the  Modification  of  Course  of  Study  or  of  Organization  to  Link 
them  up  with  the  High  School.    (Data  from  405  Rural  High  Schools) 


Types  of  schools 


1-49 

pupils 

less  than 

4-year 

1^9 

pupils 

50-99 
pupils 

100-149 
pupils 

150 

pupils 

and 

schools 

over 

16 

46 

24 

13 

2 

42 

117 

89 

36 

20 

12 

20 

10 

5 

4 

1 

6 

2 

12 

6 

1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

3 

19 

13 

8 

14 

60 

45 
9 

19 

7 

4 

22 

13 

2 

3 

15 

7 

21 

10 
1 

3 

1 

3 

11 

11 

6 

4 

4 

5 

4 

2 

7 

5 

3 

1 

2 

Total 


No  form  of  reorgan- 
ization   

Using  some  plan  of 
reorganization.  .  .  . 

Upper  grades  sit  with 
high  school 

Promotion  by  subject 
in  upper  grades 

Departmental  instruc 
tion 

Junior  high  school .  .  . 

Latin 

Algebra 

History 

Science 

Civics 

Literature 

Physical  geography.  . 

Commercial  subjects. 

Vocational  subjects.  . 

Drawing 

English  grammar .  .  .  . 


101 

304 

32 

19 

27 

11 

43 

145 

9 
41 
25 
35 

1 
31 
17 
17 

3 


47 


Junior  High  School  Organization 
In  reply  to  a  questionnaire  sent  out  from  the  office  of  the  Assis- 
tant Commissioner  for  Secondary  Education,  in  February,  1921,  ask- 
ing for  information  as  to  the  schools  having  a  Junior  high  school  and 
their  aims,  methods  and  courses  of  study,  twelve  principals  from 
the  609  rural  high  schools  reported  such  an  organization.  Two  schools 
of  the  609,  not  reported  in  the  questionnaire  as  having  Junior  high 
schools  had  a  Junior  high  school  in  1920-21.  Thus  in  609  rural 
high  schools  there  were  14  schools  having  some  form  of  Junior  high 
school  organization. 

The  data  from  the  12  schools  reporting  to  the  Assistant  Com- 
missioner for  Secondary  Education  offer  the  following  facts: 

Aims: 

Hold  pupils 2 

Lessen  pressure  in  the  high  school 1 

Departmental  work 5 

Save  pupils'  time 1 

Flexibility  of  promotion 2 

Election  of  subjects 1 

Give  more  responsibility  to  pupil 1 

Pass  preliminary  subjects 1 

Supervised  study 1 

Bridge  chasm  between  elementary  grades  and  high  school 1 

Segregation  of  boys  and  girls  in  class  and  study 1 

Give  some  worthwhile  high  school  work  to  pupils  who  plan  to 

leave  school  early 1 

The  following  were  the  statements  made  in  reply  to  the  question 
as  to  course  of  study  used: 

1.  Same  as  State  outline  for  7th  and  8th  grades  except  algebra  in 
8A. 

2.  Regular  7th  and  8th  grade  syllabus. 

3.  Regular  7th  and  8th  grade  work. 

4.  Regular  7th  and  8th  grade  work. 

5.  Regular  7th  and  8th  grade  work. 

6.  Begin  Latin  in  7th  grade,  French,  algebra,  and  mechanical 
drawing  in  8th  grade. 

7.  Commercial  arithmetic  or  algebra  in  8A,  commercial  geog- 
raphy in  8th  grade. 

8.  Regular  work  plus  domestic  science,  carpentry,  civics,  music 
and  clay  modeling. 


9.  General  mathematics,  general  science,  English,  American 
history,  drawing,  and  spelling. 

10.  Algebra  in  8th  A  grade. 

11.  Regular  work,  also  business  writing,  domestic  arts,  and 
chorus  in  7th  grade,  business  writing,  domestic  art,  general  science, 
shop  work,  and  chorus  in  the  8th  grade. 

12.  No  statement  as  to  course  of  study  pursued. 

The  study  of  the  12  schools  reporting  shows  that  with  the  possible 
exception  of  three  cases  the  Junior  high  schools  are  only  nominally 
so  and  lack  the  fundamental  characteristics  of  Junior  high  schools. 
The  slowness  of  Junior  high  school  development  which  has  so  much 
to  offer  in  vitalizing  education  in  the  rural  high  schools  of  New 
York  is  probably  due  to  two  large  factors:  (1)  The  failure  of  the 
State  Department  of  Education  to  assume  leadership  in  the  matter 
of  Junior  high  schools  in  rural  communities  and  to  suggest  ways 
and  means  of  organization,  and  (2)  in  the  rigid  requirements  of  the 
State  courses  of  study  and  preliminary  examinations  for  the  upper 
grades.  No  suggested  curricula  for  Junior  high  schools  have  been 
offered  by  the  State  Department  and  indications  are  that  the 
Junior  high  school  has  been  discouraged  in  small  systems,  as  a 
letter,  Nov.  29,  1921,  from  the  Examinations  and  Inspections  Di- 
vision to  a  principal  of  a  school  with  an  enrolment  of  158  in  the 
elementary  grades  and  41  in  the  high  school,  called  attention  to  the 
inadvisability  of  a  Junior  high  school  in  a  system  of  that  enrolment. 

The  study  of  the  various  phases  of  the  rural  high  school  problem 
in  New  York  indicates  the  desirability  of  more  closely  articulating 
the  high  school  with  the  elementary  school.  The  development  of  a 
school  organization  and  of  curricula  more  vitally  related  to  the  needs 
of  pupils  in  the  upper  grades  and  the  first  year  of  the  rural  high 
school  should  go  far  in  bringing  about  such  articulation.  A  secondary 
school  system  on  the  Junior  high  school  plan  or  at  least  beginning 
with  the  seventh  grade  would  seem  to  offer  great  possibilities  for 
many  rural  communities.  This  would  be  especially  true  if  the 
work  of  the  first  three  years  were  designed  to  fit  the  needs,  abilities, 
and  interests  of  the  pupils  of  the  community  and  were  not  fettered 
by  the  traditional  work  in  Latin  and  other  foreign  languages,  and 

4  49 


mathematics  as  the  core  of  the  curriculum.  Communities  and 
local  administrators  looking  toward  a  reorganization  of  their  school 
system  would  undoubtedly  receive  much  help  if  suggested  plans  of 
organization  and  curricula  for  Junior  high  schools  based  upon  a 
study  of  the  needs  and  resources  of  rural  communities  and  the  more 
generally  accepted  principles  underlying  the  Junior  high  school 
movement  were  available  from  the  State  Department. 

It  should  be  noted  that  some  years  past  a  committee  to  work  in 
cooperation  with  the  State  Examinations  Board  to  formulate  a 
State  course  of  study  for  the  Junior  high  or  Intermediate  School 
was  appointed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Education.  This  Commit- 
tee made  its  final  report  November  29,  1921 .  The  following  quota- 
tion gives  the  tenor  of  the  report  of  this  committee: 

"  At  the  time  this  Committee  was  appointed,  doubt  was  expressed 
as  to  whether  we  had  progressed  sufficiently  far  in  the  development 
of  the  Junior  High  School  to  warrant  an  attempt  to  formulate  a 
State-wide  course  of  study  for  this  type  of  school  organization. 
Subsequent  experience  has  simply  confirmed  that  doubt  and  this 
report  is  a  recommendation  that  the  attempt  be  abandoned  and  the 
Committee  discharged. 

"Even  under  anything  like  normal  conditions  an  experience  of 
ten  or  fifteen  years  with  the  Junior  High  School  would  be  little 
enough  to  warrant  an  attempt  to  formulate  a  State-wide  course  of 
study.  Furthermore,  it  would  be  practically  imperative  that  this 
experience  include  not  simply  the  larger  city  school  systems  but 
that  it  include  at  least  a  few  type  communities  throughout  the 
State.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  had  it  not  been  for  the 
general  retarding  effect  of  war  conditions  upon  public  school  de- 
velopment, the  extension  of  this  school  organization  would  have 
been  more  widely  adopted  in  the  State  than  it  has.  However  that 
may  be,  the  fact  remains  that  in  the  judgment  of  your  Committee 
our  experience  is  not  yet  sufficiently  long  nor  sufficiently  broad  to 
warrant  further  attempt  at  this  time  to  formulate  a  State-wide 
Junior  High  School  course  of  study. 

"There  is  also  another  factor  in  this  situation.  Due  to  a  good 
many  causes,  one  of  which  has  doubtless  been  the  spread  of  the 
Junior  High  School  unit  throughout  the  country,  rather  intensive 

.so 


studies  are  now  being  made  of  some  very  important  lines  of  work  that 
affect  this  problem.  This  is  particularly  true  of  Latin,  for  example. 
Furthermore,  there  is  a  rather  wide-spread  uncertainty  with  refer- 
ence to  the  place  and  nature  of  such  other  subjects  as  general  science, 
modern  language,  and  mathematics.  Serious  thought  and  at- 
tention are  being  given  to  all  these  lines,  and  the  reports  which  result 
should  be  available  before  the  State  itself  specifically  sets  forth  a 
Junior  High  School  syllabus." 


Si 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  THE 
RURAL  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  Principal's  Work  as  Director  and  Supervisor  of  In- 
struction in  the  New  York  Rural  High  Schools 

THE  data  given  by  360  principals  as  to  the  number  of  meetings 
held  each  month  for  the  discussion  of  the  problems  of  the 
school,  and  by  296  principals  as  to  the  number  of  individual 
conferences  with  high  school  teachers  each  month,  point  to  some 
interesting  facts.  Of  the  principals  reporting,  78  reported  no 
meetings  of  high  school  teachers  and  160  reported  one  meeting  a 
month.  Over  65  percent  of  the  principals  reporting  held  only  one 
or  no  meetings  a  month  for  high  school  teachers.  Less  than  45  per- 
cent held  two  or  more  such  meetings  a  month.  (See  Tables  23  and 
24.) 


Table  23.- 


-Number  of  High  School  Teachers'  Meetings  Held  by  Prin- 
cipal each  Month.     (360  Schools) 


Types  of  schools  (on  basis  of 

number  o 

f  pupils 

enrolled) 

Number  of 

Total 

number 

meetings  a 
month 

1-49 

of  schools 

less  than 

1-49 

50-99 

100-149 

150- 

reporting 

4  years 

0 

45 

18 

13 

2 

78 

1 

8 

59 

56 

26 

ii 

160 

2 

4 

16 

18 

13 

8 

59 

3 

9 

9 

2 

20 

4 

5 

21 

10 

5 

41 

5 

1 

1 

2 

Total 

62 

124 

107 

48 

19 

360 

52 


Table  24. — Number  of  Individual  Conferences  with  Teachers  Concern- 
ing Their  Work  by  Principal  Each  Month.     (296  Schools) 


Types  of  schools 

Number  of 

conferences 
each  month 

1-49 
less  than 
4  years 

1-49 

50-99 

100-149 

150- 

Total 

0 

12 

13 

4 

1 

30 

1 

6 

14 

11 

6 

37 

2 

2 

10 

19 

2 

6 

39 

3 

1 

8 

9 

2 

5 

25 

4 

7 

28 

15 

11 

1 

62 

5  or  more 

2 

37 

39 

18 

7 

103 

Total 

30 

110 

97 

39 

20 

296 

Thirty  principals  reported  no  conferences  with  individual  teachers 
on  teaching  problems,  and  one  hundred  and  six,  two  or  less  a  month. 
All  the  facts  gathered  from  all  sources,  questionnaire  to  principals, 
data  from  field  work  on  the  survey  with  regard  to  problems  of  the 
high  school  principal  in  administration,  organization,  and  super- 
vision, emphasize  the  same  difficulties.  In  the  smaller  schools  the 
principal  is  regarded  primarily  as  a  class-room  teacher  and  has  little 
defined  authority  as  administrator  and  supervisor.  His  teaching 
schedule  is  so  heavy  as  to  give  him  little  or  no  time  for  genuine 
principalship  work.  The  most  prominent  problem  coming  from  all 
types  of  principalships  is  lack  of  time  for  the  administrative  and 
supervisory  phases  of  their  duties.  This,  combined  with  the  lack  of 
specific  definitions  as  to  the  principal's  status  in  the  administration 
and  organization  of  his  school,  undoubtedly  hinders  the  development 
of  the  most  efficient  type  of  principalship  in  the  New  York  rural 
high  schools. 

The  problems  taken  up  in  meetings  of  high  school  teachers  are 
important  problems,  but  reflect  in  the  main  lack  of  attention  to  the 
means  for  modernizing  and  vitalizing  high  school  instruction  and 
high  school  government .     The  outstanding  problems  discussed  were, 

53 


in  the  order  of  the  frequency  of  their  mention,  pupil  discipline,  at- 
tendance and  tardiness,  retarded  pupils,  securing  the  interest  of 
pupils  in  class-room  work,  and  maintaining  their  continuous  effort. 
Other  frequently  mentioned  problems  were  home  study,  class-room 
management  and  methods,  improving  scholarship  of  pupils,  the 
selection  of  text-books,  promotions,  and  pupils'  marks.  Topics  less 
often  reported  as  the  problems  for  discussion  in  high  school  teachers ' 
meetings  were:  supervised  study,  extra-class-room  activities,  the  use 
of  standardized  tests  in  high  school  work,  silent  reading,  the  making 
of  an  assignment,  the  daily  program,  pupils '  health,  how  to  study, 
basis  for  admission  to  Regents  examinations,  the  uses  of  the  ques- 
tion in  teaching,  and  character  building.  The  latter  problems  are 
mentioned  only  sporadically  and  infrequently. 

As  to  the  most  perplexing  problems  of  administration  and  or- 
ganization, the  replies  of  principals  showed  extraordinary  agreement. 
The  most  common  problem,  mentioned  by  practically  100  principals, 
was  that  of  insufficient  time  for  meeting  their  administrative  duties. 
Closely  related  to  it  was  the  second  most  commonly  mentioned 
problem  given  by  over  70  principals,  that  of  inadequate  teaching 
force,  and  the  third,  the  difficulty  of  securing  good  teachers,  those 
with  either  professional  interest  or  attitude.  Two  other  problems 
given  more  than  70  times  were  the  problems  of  inadequate  room 
and  library  and  laboratory  equipment,  and  inadequate  playground 
facilities.  Other  problems  commonly  stated  were,  in  the  order  of 
frequency:  lack  of  cooperation  on  the  part  of  parents,  securing  the 
interest  of  pupils  in  a  narrow  classical  curriculum,  overcoming 
pupils '  aversions  to  school  work,  attendance,  congestion  caused  by 
repeateis,  lack  of  pupil  social  organizations,  grading,  scholarship, 
clerical  help,  and  development  of  pupil  leadership. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  a  supervisor  the  problems  in  order  of  the 
frequency  with  which  they  were  mentioned  were:  insufficient  time, 
non-professional  attitude  of  teachers,  insufficient  teachers,  lack 
of  interest  on  the  part  of  pupils,  scholarship,  grading,  heavy 
teaching  load,  over-ageness  of  pupils,  crowded  conditions,  and 
discipline. 

The  majority  of  high  school  principals  offered  suggestions  as  to 
steps  that  might  be  taken  to  improve  rural  high  schools.     In  the 

54 


order  of  the  frequency  of  their  occurrence  these  suggestions  were 
as  follows: 

More  vocational  work,  particularly  agriculture  and  homemaking. 

Consolidation  of  school  districts  tributary  to  local  high  school. 

Better  rural  teachers. 

More  teachers. 

Less  emphasis  upon  Latin  and  other  foreign  languages. 

Wider  curricula  and  more  practical  courses  of  study. 

More  helpful  supervision  and  assistance  from  state  inspectors. 

More  time  for  supervision. 

Larger  units  of  taxation  and  equalization  of  taxes. 

Adjustment  of  high  school  curricula  to  local  needs. 

Live  Parent-Teachers'  associations. 

More  State  aid  for  rural  high  schools. 

Longer  tenure  for  principals  and  teachers. 

Junior  high  schools. 

Less  emphasis  upon  Regents  examinations. 


The  Extent  to  Which  the  Principal  has  a  Voice  in  the  Selec- 
tion of  Teachers  and  the  Assignment  of  Work 
to  His  Teachers 

The  data  supplied  by  389  principals  as  to  their  part  in  the  selec- 
tion of  their  teaching  staff  indicate  a  lack  of  clearness  as  to  the 


Table  25.- 


-The  Extent  to  Which  the  Principal  has  a  Voice  in  the 
Selection  of  Teachers.     (389  Principals) 


Voice  in  selection 
of  teachers 

1-49 

less 

than 

4  years 

1-49 

4  years 

50-99 

100-149 

150- 

Total 

None 

24 

18 

10 
6 

51 
11 
47 

56 

6 

5 
33 

52 

13 

35 

1 
6 

15 

81 

Very  little 

17 

Advisory 

Recommends    or    ap- 
points on  approval 
of  board  

117 
168 

With  dist.  supt 

6 

Total 

58 

165 

96 

48 

22 

389 

55 


principal's  function.  Ninety-eight  principals  or  25  percent  report 
no  or  very  little  voice  in  the  selection  of  their  high  school  teaching 
corps;  117  principals  or  30  percent  report  advisory  voice;  168 
principals  or  43  percent  have  either  the  power  of  recommendation 
or  of  appointing  teachers  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  school 
board.  The  larger  percentage  of  principals  having  little  or  no  voice 
in  the  selection  of  their  teaching  staff  is  found  in  the  smaller 
high  schools,  while  the  larger  percentage  exercising  recommenda- 
tory or  appointment  powers  is  in  the  larger  high  schools.  (See 
Table  25.) 

In  the  assignment  of  work  to  teachers  there  is  greater  uniformity 
in  practice.  The  majority  of  principals  here  have  the  deciding 
voice,  although  49  principals,  largely  in  the  smaller  schools,  have 
little  or  no  voice  even  in  this  phase  of  the  principal's  work. 
(See  Table  26.) 


Table  26. — The  Principal's  Responsibility  in  the  Assignment  of  Teacher's 
Work.     (389  Principals) 


Types  of  schools 

Voice  in  assignment 
of  work  to  teachers 

1-49 

less 

than 

4  years 

1-49 

4  years 

50-99 

100-149 

ISO- 

Total 

None 

Very  little 

Part  authority 

All 

All  in  high  school,  none 

in  grades 

With  dist.  supt 

16 

1 

13 

25 

6 

18 
11 
33 
86 

4 

3 

10 
93 

3 
45 

'S 

17 

37 

12 

64 

266 

4 
6 

Total 

61 

152 

106 

48 

22 

389 

The  lack  of  voice  which  the  high  school  principal  has  in  the  selec- 
tion of  his  teachers,  particularly  marked  in  the  smaller  high  schools, 
has  a  very  direct  bearing  upon  the  work  of  these  schools.     In  the 

56 


first  place,  the  teachers  are  elected  by  the  school  board,  frequently 
with  no  definite  knowledge  with  regard  to  the  subjects  which  they 
must  teach,  or  often  as  to  the  subjects  which  they  are  best  prepared 
to  teach.  As  a  result  the  principal  in  organizing  the  work  of  his 
school  often  finds  that  he  must  assign  to  teachers  subjects  which 
they  are  not  at  all  prepared  to  handle.  In  the  second  place,  it  takes 
away  from  the  principal  an  important  factor  operating  in  the  direc- 
tion of  staff  loyalty  and  cooperation,  in  that  his  estimate  of  a 
teacher's  work  in  the  school  tends  to  have  little  or  no  weight. 
It  deprives  the  principal  of  one  of  his  most  useful  powers  as  the 
executive  head  of  the  school. 

State  Inspection  of  Rural  High  Schools 
The  total  number  of  State  inspections  of  high  schools  to  May  25 
of  the  school  year  1920-21,  not  including  the  visits  made  by  the 
supervisory  staff  of  the  Division  of  Vocational  and  Extension 
Education,  was  736.  Of  this  number  district  superintendents  made 
the  inspections  for  127  high  schools  and  reported  their  findings  to 
the  State  Department.  A  careful  study  of  108  of  the  inspections 
made  by  district  superintendents  in  1920-21  and  of  86  inspections 
made  by  the  Examinations  and  Inspections  Division  in  1919-20  and 
1920-21,  indicates  that  the  work  is  primarily  and  mainly  inspec- 
tional  in  character  and  that  it  does  not  to  any  great  extent  function 
as  a  supervisory  agent.  This  is  probably  as  it  should  be.  There  is 
evidence,  however,  that  the  State  Department  does  consciously  aim 
to  function  in  a  supervisory  way.  The  fact  that  the  inspection  of 
127  of  the  small  rural  high  schools  was  delegated  to  the  district 
superintendents  in  1920-21,  a  large  proportion  of  which  inspections 
were  made  late  in  the  spring,  shows  definitely  that  as  a  helpful 
supervisory  agent  the  State  Department  is  failing  where  help  is 
most  needed — in  the  smaller  and  weaker  high  schools.  One  in- 
spector writes  in  his  inspection  report  of  a  small  high  school  that  it 
was  the  first  inspection  made  by  the  State  Department  in  that 
school  in  five  years. 

An  analysis  of  the  schools  inspected  by  district  superintendents 
for  the  year  1920-21  shows  that  the  schools  were  distributed  as 
follows  and  were  of  the  following  types: 

57 


Center  in  which 

Type  of  school  inspected 

Total 

located 

Junior          Middle 

Senior 

High  school 

Rural  community 

15                 12 

25 

17 

69 

250  or  under 

1 

1 

2 

4 

250-    500 

2 

3 

6 

9 

20 

500-    750 

5 

1 

1 

4 

11 

750-1,000 

1 

1 

2 

1,000-1,250 

1,250-1,500 

1,500-1,750 

1,750-2,000 

2,000-2,250 

2.250-2,500 

i 

i 

2 

Total 

23                 17 

34 

34 

108 

An  analysis  of  the  inspections  made  by  the  State  Department 
shows  that  the  larger  high  schools  receive  much  more  attention 
than  the  smaller  schools.  These  inspections  are  to  a  large  extent 
inspections  as  to  the  teaching  of  some  particular  high  school  subject. 
Frequently  they  are  made  at  the  request  of  a  superintendent  or 
high  school  principal  who  wishes  assistance  in  estimating  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  of  a  particular  teacher.  The  following  random 
selection  from  schools  receiving  more  than  one  visit  in  1920-21  indi- 
cates the  extent  to  which  the  attention  of  the  State  Inspectors  tends 
toward  the  larger  schools: 


Name  of  high  school 


Number  of 
inspections 


Population  of 
center  in  which 
located.    U.  S. 

census,  1920 


High  school 
enrolment 
1916-1917 


Horseheads 

Gowanda 

Huntington 

Lansingburg 

Gouverneur 

Hudson  Falls 

Medina 

Lancaster 

Myndcrse  Academy,  Seneca  Falls 

Ilion 

Johnstown 

Little  Falls 

Corning 

Glens  Falls 

Lackawanna 

Newburgh  Free  Academy 

Lafayette  High  School,  Buffalo.  . 


2,078 
2,673 
9, (XX) 

? 

4,143 

5,761 

6,011 

6,059 

6,389 

10,169 

10,908 

13,029 

15.820 

16,638 

17,918 

30.366 

506.775 


130 
57 
247 
243 
228 
249 
196 
86 
175 
351 
291 
203 
341 
337 
139 
590 
1,143 


58 


The  above  facts  seem  to  indicate  that  the  energy  of  the  State 
Examinations  and  Inspections  Division  tends  to  gravitate  to- 
ward the  larger  high  schools.  There  arises  a  question  as  to  the 
soundness  of  this  policy.  It  is  evident  that  these  larger  high 
schools,  with  their  better  equipment,  better  administrative  and 
supervisory  force,  better  teaching  staff,  and  general  advantages, 
should  need  less  outside  assistance  than  the  small  rural  high  school 
with  its  comparative  lack  of  equipment,  poorer  teaching  force,  and 
inadequate  organization  from  the  standpoint  of  administration, 
direction,  and  supervision. 

A  close  study  of  the  inspections  made  by  district  superintendents 
for  1920-21  yields  the  following  facts  as  to  points  of  emphasis  and 
nature. 

Generally  commendatory  as  to  organization,  discipline,  and 

instruction 85 

Indefinite  generalizations 31 

Detailed  and  specific 12 

Adverse  in  general 3 

Containing  nothing  on  instruction 5 

Suggestions  as  to  methods  of  instruction 8 

Suggesting  more  supervision  by  principal  with  no  suggestions 

as  to  the  way  in  which  this  might  be  accomplished 6 

Suggesting  need  of  more  teachers 10 

Pointing  out  inadequacies  of  building  and  equipment 12 

Reports  of  conferences  with  high  school  teachers 5 

Suggesting  changes  in  organization 5 

A  study  of  the  inspections  made  by  the  State  Examinations  and 
Inspections  Division  indicates  the  following  points  of  emphasis: 

Building  and  equipment  inadequate 21 

Recommended    reorganization    of    distribution    of  work    to 

teachers 12 

Calling  attention  to  school's  standing  in  Regents  examina- 
tions      11 

Suggested  better  methods  of  instruction 7 

Adverse  criticism  as  to  results  in  special  high  school  subjects ...    19 

Favorable  comment  on  work  in  special  subjects 16 

Commended  the  school  spirit 4 

Recommended  new  course  of  study 4 

Recommended  the  teaching  of  fewer  subjects 4 

59 


The  reports  on  inspections  as  made  by  the  inspectors  of  the  Depart- 
ment in  the  main  indicate  a  broad  conception  as  to  the  function  of 
high  school  education  and  an  earnest  desire  to  be  of  service  to  the 
high  schools  of  the  State.  As  an  agent  working  effectively,  however, 
in  directing  and  improving  the  organization  and  instruction  of  the 
rural  high  school,  it  seems  inadequate  because  of  the  infrequency  of 
the  inspections  and  because  of  lack  of  direct  and  vital  touch  with 
the  principal  and  teachers  and  their  problems  and  because  of  lack  of 
persons  peculiarly  fitted  and  specifically  trained  to  direct  in  the 
general  organization  of  the  school  and  in  improving  class  room  man- 
agement and  general  methods  of  teaching  in  several  subjects.  (See 
Table  27.) 

Table  27. — Nature  of  Assistance  Given  High  School  Principal:  (a)  By 
District  Superintendent  (354  Schools);  (b)  by  State  Department 
(340  Schools) 

(a)  Assistance  from  District  Superintendent 


Types  of  schools 

No  help 

Advises 

Supervises 

Visits 

Total 

1-49  less  than  4  years 

20 

19 

6 

17 

62 

1-49 

59 

49 

108 

50-99 

32 

36 

16 

29 

113 

100-149 

25 

15 

9 

49 

150  and  over 

15 

3 

2 

2 

22 

Totals 

92 

132 

73 

57 

354 

(b) 

Assistance  from 

State  Department 

Supplies 

Types  of  schools 

No 
help 

Visits 

Inspects 

educa- 
tional 
materials 

Con- 
ferences 

Total 

1-49  less  than  4  years 

30 

7 

5 

14 

5 

61 

1-49 

25 

48 

30 

103 

50-  99 

29 

22 

23 

21 

8 

103 

100-149 

12 

17 

10 

13 

52 

150  and  over 

3 

7 

6 

5 

21 

Totals 

74 

53 

59 

93 

61 

340 

6o 


School  Records 
Three  hundred  and  sixty  schools,  or  90  percent  of  those  reporting 
on  the  item  of  school  records,  use  a  cumulative  record  card  system; 
40  or  10  percent  of  the  schools  use  some  other  method  of  keeping 
pupil  records.  Other  forms  of  records  specifically  mentioned  are: 
record  book  nine  schools:  Regents  Record  Book  nine;  Bardeen's 
Regents  record  seven;  pupils'  report  cards  six;  class  records  one. 
(See  Table  28.) 

Table  28. — Types  of  School  Records  Kept  on  File  in  Local  High  School 
Office.     (400  Schools  Reporting) 


Schools 

150 

Types  of  records 

1-49  pupils 

1-49 

50-99 

100-149 

pupils 

Total 

kept 

less  than 

pupils 

pupils 

pupils 

and 

4  years 

over 

No  card  index.  .  .  . 

12 

22 

6 

40 

Cumulative  card 

index    

42 

140 

107 

49 

22 

360 

Other     recording 

devices 

Record  book 

Book   record 

Regents  rec- 

Leighton 

4 

3 

ord  book  5 

cards  3 

Regents  rec- 

Leighton 

State  form 

ord  4 

Report  cards 

System  9 

Permanent 

Class  record 
1 

4 

book  rec- 
ord 2 

Reports  2 

Bardeen  Re- 
gents rec- 
ord 7 

Academic 
record 
card  3 

There  seems  to  be,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  schools,  the 
practice  of  keeping  only  the  pupil's  academic  record,  and  in  some 
schools  only  his  record  in  Regents  examinations,  where  these  are  the 
only  basis  of  graduation.  In  only  a  few  of  the  rural  high  schools  is 
a  record  kept  of  the  pupil's  activities  out  of  the  class-room  or  of  his 
occupational  and  other  experience  valuable  for  guidance  purposes. 


Pupil  Guidance 
The  New  York  rural  high  schools  do  very  little  in  a  definite  or- 
ganized way  in  the  matter  of  educational  and  vocational  guidance 
of  pupils.     The  systems  of  school  records  generally  used  do  not  give 
the  material  most  useful  in  pupil  guidance  and  undoubtedly  the 

61 


heavy  teaching  schedule  of  both  teachers  and  principals  and  the 
lack  of  clerical  assistance  do  not  favor  the  development  of  definite 
plans  for  pupil  guidance. 

Information  supplied  by  405  principals  shows  the  following  facts 
with  regard  to  the  status  of  pupil  guidance:  Two  hundred  and 
twelve  schools  or  52  percent  use  no  definite  plan  of  pupil  guidance 
while  47  percent  or  193  have  organized,  principally  through  the 
teacher 's  advisory  plan,  to  give  pupils  guidance  in  their  vocational 
plans  and  in  the  selection  of  their  school  work.  Thirteen  of  the 
larger  schools  report  courses  or  plans  for  courses  in  the  study  of  oc- 
cupations; 74  schools  are  giving  occupational  talks  to  the  high 
school  pupils;  26  schools  report  the  use  of  vocational  reading;  and 
39  schools  mention  observation  trips  taken  with  the  view  to  giving 
vocational  information  to  pupils.  One  hundred  nineteen  schools 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that  they  give  the  pupil  guidance  through 
the  regular  high  school  courses,  while  several  mention  private  con- 
sultations, motion  pictures,  and  individual  help.    (See  Table  29.) 


Table  29. 


-Ways  and  Means  of  Pupil  Guidance  in  New  York  Rural  High 
Schools.     (405  Schools) 


Plans  of  pupil 
guidance 


1-49  less 
than  4  years 


50-99 


100-149 


Total 


No  definite  plan  of 
guidance 

Guidance 

Teacher  adviser.  .  . 

Course  in  study  of 
occupations 

Occupational  talks. 

Vocational  readings 

Observation  trips.  . 

Other  means 


Individual 
attention  3 

Pupils  are 
too  young 

1 


104 
58 
56 


17 

6 

10 

Motion  pic- 
tures 2 

Parent- 
Teachers' 
Assoc.  1 

Lectures  by 
business 
men  1 

Through  reg- 
ular 
courses  59 


53 
60 
60 

5 
35 

6 
12 


12 
36 

35 

4 
9 


Individual  help  13 

Private  consultation  1 
Address  from  outside  once 
a  month.  Through  regu- 
lar courses  60 


212 
193 
190 

13 
74 
26 
39 


62 


1-49     50-99    100-149 

Size  of  schools  -  enrolment 


150+ 


Diagram  8. — Percent  of  New  York  rural  high  schools  of  different  types  having 

pupil  guidance 


Supervised  Study 
In  the  matter  of  supervised  study  the  majority  of  New  York 
rural  high  schools  have  taken  no  definite  steps.  Of  405  schools,  270 
or  over  66  percent  state  that  they  use  none  of  the  regular  plans  for 
supervising  the  study  of  their  pupils.  One  hundred  thirty-five 
schools  report  a  definite  supervised  study  organization.  Of  these 
135  schools  using  a  definite  plan  for  supervised  study,  64  use  the 
divided  period;    23  schools  report  a  double  period  plan,  although 

63 


the  nature  of  this  is  uncertain,  since  only  two  schools  were  organized 
on  the  60-minute  period  basis.  Seventy-four  schools  have  sched- 
uled conference  periods  with  pupils.  Twenty-six  schools  report 
supervision  of  pupils '  study  by  a  teacher  in  the  general  study  room ; 
seven  schools  give  recitation  periods  to  preparation  of  lessons; 
three  have  pupils  go  to  teachers  during  teacher's  free  periods;  six 
mention  careful  directions  through  the  lesson  assignments.  One 
school  is  organized  with  a  supervised  study  period  at  the  end  of  the 
day,  and  one  principal  reports  supervised  study  as  unnecessary. 
Table  30  gives  the  details  as  they  were  reported  by  the  405  high 
school  principals. 


Table  30. — Schools   Having   Supervised   Study   and   Plan   Used.     (405 

Schools) 


Plan  used 

Schools 
1-49 

pupils 
less  than 
4  years 

1-49 

pupils 

50-99 
pupils 

100-149 

pupils 

150  pupils 
and  over 

Total 

No     supervised 

45 
17 
8 

9 

105 

54 

22 

6 

26 

75 

38 

22 

8 

18 

28 

21 

7 

9 

18 

17 

5 
5 

3 

270 

Supervised  study . 
Divided  period .  .  . 
Double  period .... 
Scheduled  confer- 
ence period .... 

135 
64 
23 

74 

62 

159 

113 

49 

22 

Other  plans 

Principal 
does 
work  in 
study 
room  3 

Try  to 

pointout 
special 
things  in 
lesson 
period  2 

Study    in 
class 
during 
recita- 
tion 2 

Pupil 
comes  to 
teacher 
1 

Teacher  in 
study 
hall  6 

Assign- 
ment ex- 
plained 
2 

Personal 
aid     to 
pupils  3 

Vacant 
periods 
of  teach- 
ers 2 

Study  with 
classes  5 

Study  hall 
teacher 
oversees 
work  12 

Period   at 
end     of 
day  1 

Unneces- 
sary 1 

Teachers 
adapt 
work  to 
classes  2 

Deficient 
and 

younger 
pupils  in 
study 
halls  3 

Students 
keep  rec- 
ord    of 
time 
spent  in 
home 
study  1 

Pupils     in 

study 
hall    un- 
der 

teacher 
monitors 
1 

64 


Extra-Class-Room  Activities 

One  of  the  most  striking  facts  coming  from  the  study  of  New 
York  rural  high  schools  is  the  little  attention  and  emphasis  given  to 
extra-class-room  activities  in  their  organization.  This  lack  of  em- 
phasis upon  extra-class-room  activities  of  pupils  is  somewhat  offset 
by  the  general  practice  of  high  school  assemblies.  But  notwith- 
standing the  impression  left  strongly  on  the  mind  of  the  person  ob- 
serving the  rural  high  schools  at  work  and  in  studying  the  facts 
with  regard  to  their  work  is  that  there  is  here  unused  a  great  means 
of  vitalizing  the  high  school  work,  of  improving  the  school  spirit, 
and  of  giving  New  York  rural  high  school  boys  and  girls  direct 
training  in  citizenship  and  avocational  interests  such  as  they  cannot 
get  through  any  study  in  the  regular  curriculum.  It  would  seem 
to  be  one  factor  of  great  importance  accounting  for  the  magnitude 
of  the  problem  of  discipline  in  the  high  schools  and  for  the  general 
lack  of  spirit  and  interest  on  the  part  of  high  school  pupils  in  their 
work  so  frequently  found  in  all  the  comments  of  principals  and 
teachers  as  to  their  most  perplexing  problems. 

One  hundred  and  eighty  high  schools  out  of  405  report  no  extra- 
class-room  activities  other  than  athletics,  Boy  Scouts,  Campfire 
Girls,  and  Girl  Scouts,  and  these  with  the  exception  of  athletics  are 
usually  directed  in  the  smaller  schools  by  some  person  outside  the 
school  staff.  In  almost  no  instance  do  the  extra-class-room  activities 
come  in  the  regular  school  day,  but  meet  predominately  in  the 
evening  or  in  the  afternoon  after  school  hours.  Table  31  gives  in 
detail  the  nature  of  the  extra-class  activities  found  in  the  various 
schools  and  the  number  of  schools  reporting  such  pupil  organiza- 
tions. Table  32  shows  the  times  of  meeting,  the  method  of  direc- 
tion or  control  and  the  nature  of  the  responsibility  of  the  teacher 
where  the  teacher  has  a  duty  in  regard  to  them. 

High  School  Assemblies 
It  is  the  general  practice  of  the  rural  high  schools  to  have  high 
school  assemblies  once  a  week  or  oftener.  Twenty-four  schools, 
however,  or  over  12  percent  of  those  reporting,  state  that  they  hold 
no  high  school  assemblies.  In  the  majority  of  schools  these  are 
mainly  in  the  nature  of  opening  exercises  and  come  in  the  regular 
5  65 


Table  31. — Number  and  Kinds  of  Extra-Class-Room  Activities.     (405 

Schools) 


Type  of  school 


1^9 

less 

than 

4  years 


1-49 


50-99 


100-149 


150- 


Total 


1.  Literary  Club. . .  . 

2.  Debating  Club. .  . 

3.  Science  Club 

4.  Orchestra 

5.  Glee  Clubs 

6.  Athletic  Assoc. . . . 

7.  Boy  Scouts 

8.  School  Paper.  .  .  . 

9.  Campfire  Girls.  . . 

10.  Girl  Scouts 

11.  Hi  Y 

12.  Dramatic  Club. . . 

13.  French  Club 

14.  Girl  Reserves.  .  .  . 

15.  Class  Clubs 

16.  Thrift  Club 

17.  Woodcraft  Girls.. 

18.  Sewing  Club 

19.  Bird  Club 

20.  Social  Circle 

21.  Health  Club 

22.  Short  Story  Club . 

23.  Latin  Club 

24.  Band 

25.  History  Club.  . 

26.  Oral  English  Club 

27.  Art  Club 

28.  Radio  Club 

29.  Y.  W.  C.  A 

30.  Y.  M.  C.  A 

31.  Tennis  Club 


3 
1 
1 

5 
3 

17 
1') 

8 
11 

4 


13 
9 
1 
22 
11 
85 
67 
37 
36 


15 

8 

3 

45 

36 

92 

55 

58 

30 

9 

2 

1 

3 
3 
6 
1 
3 
1 
1 
3 


9 

7 

1 

26 

17 

44 

26 

28 

21 

4 

3 

1 

1 


1 

8 

2 

21 

12 

24 

14 

18 

12 

5 

1 

1 

1 


41 

33 

8 

119 

79 

262 

181 

149 

110 

22 

6 

12 

6 

7 

14 
1 
3 
8 
2 
4 
4 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
3 
2 


daily  program  organization  and  are  of  but  ten  to  twenty  minutes  in 
length.  They  are  almost  invariably  conducted  by  the  principal  or 
a  teacher  and  consist  in  Scripture  reading,  singing,  and  announce- 
ments by  the  principal.  In  many  of  the  schools  pupils  are  re- 
quired to  give  in  the  assembly  some  form  of  rhetoricals  once  a  year, 
and  in  141  of  the  schools  reporting,  programs  are  given  by  the 
pupils.  Fifty-one  schools  report  talks,  10  mention  music  by  the 
school  orchestra  and  other  pupil  musical  organizations;   18  schools 

66 


Table  32. — Extra-Class-Room  Activities:  Time  op  Meeting,  Methods  of 
Control,  Nature  of  Teachers'  Responsibility.     (405  Schools) 

(a)  Time  of  meeting 


Type  of  school 

Morning 

Noon 
hour 

Afternoon 

Out  of 
school 

hours 

Time 

not 

given 

No  extra- 
class-room 
activities 

1-49  pupils 

50-99  pupils 

100-149  pupils 

150  pupils  and  over . 

1 
1 

2 
2 

2 
1 

3 
2 

45 
66 
31 
16 

26 
15 
8 
2 

146 

28 

7 

1 

Total 

2 

4 

8 

158 

51 

182 

(b)   Methods  of  contro 

and  number  c 

f  schools  reporting  each  method 

Type  of  school 

Principal 
or  teacher 

Parents 

Pupils 

Teacher 
or  pupil 

1-49  pupils 

50-99  pupils 

100-149  pupils 

57 
54 
26 
13 

1 
2 
2 

3 

4 

i 

14 

14 
6 

Total 

150 

5 

8 

59 

(c)   Nature  of  teachers'  responsibility  and  the  number  of  schools  reporting  each 


Type  of  school 

Director 

Super- 
visor 

Adviser 

Leader 

Scout 
master 

Chap- 
erone 

1-49  pupils 

50-99  pupils 

100-149  pupils 
150  pupils  and  over . 

12 

15 

7 

2 

12 

12 

3 

2 

46 
42 
30 
16 

5 
7 
1 

8 

i 

i 

Total 

36 

29 

134 

13 

8 

2 

(d)  Other  social  gatherings  during  the  year  under  school  direction,  number  given  during 
the  year,  and  number  of  schools  reporting  each  number 


Type  of  school 

Number  of  such  gatherings  reported  for  the  year 

None 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8  or 
more 

65 

24 
9 

62 
4 
1 

31 
12 
11 

29 
14 
5 
3 

19 
12 
3 

4 

9 

10 

2 

1 

11 

9 
3 
4 

6 
1 
2 
1 

1 

50-99  pupils 

100-149  pupils 

150  pupils  and  over. . .  . 

19 
12 
6 

Total 

98 

67 

54 

51 

38 

22 

27 

10 

38 

67 


Table  33. — High  School  Assemblies 

(a)  Frequency 


Type  of 
school 

Daily 

Four  a 
week 

Three 
a  week 

Two  a 
week 

Weekly 

Two  a 

month 

Monthly 

None 

Total 

1-49      less 
than  4 
years .... 
1-  49 
50-99 
100-149 
150- 

20 
62 
30 
13 
6 

2 
1 
3 
1 

8 
25 
14 
8 
3 

9 

28 
24 

7 
4 

15 

29 

35 

5 

8 

i 

1 

i 

10 
10 
4 

55 

155 

116 

39 

22 

Total .  . 

131 

7 

58 

72 

92 

1 

22 

24 

387 

(b)  Length  in  minutes 

10 

15 

20 

25-30 

40-45 

1-49 less  than  4  years.  .  . 

26 

12 

6 

11 

1 

1-49 

16 

75 

38 

16 

50-99 

7 

49 

31 

17 

2 

100-149 

2 

15 

8 

10 

150- 

1 

5 

4 

! 

5 

Total 

52 

156 

87 

61 

8 

(c)  Method  of  conducting 


By  principals 

By  teachers 

By  pupil 

By  music  director 

40 
91 
69 
24 
17 

12 

46 

27 

6 

4 
8 

7 

i 

3 
5 
4 

Total.  241 

91 

20 

12 

(d)  Nature  of  exercises 


Type  of 

school 

Scrip- 
ture 

read- 
ing 

Sing- 
ing 

Cur- 
rent 
topics 

Pupil 
pro- 
gram 

Rhetor- 
icals 

Talks 

Orches- 
tra 
and 
other 
pupil 
music 

Folk 
plays 

Prayer 

Mov- 
ing 
pic- 
tures 

1-49  less 
than  4 
years .... 

1-49 
50-99 
100-149 
150- 

33 
84 
60 
25 
12 

44 
127 
97 
37 
21 

6 
6 

5 

i 

13 
39 
57 
22 
10 

13 

25 

18 

9 

8 

19 

19 

10 

3 

i 
4 
3 
2 

4 

i 

29 
14 
3 
3 

2 

Totals .  . 

214 

326 

18 

141 

73 

51 

10 

5 

49 

2 

(e)   Nature  and  amount  of  pupil  participation 


68 


Type  of  school 

No 
part 

Very 
little 

Coop- 
erative 
control 

Plan,  pre- 
pare and 
present 
program 

Make 
announce- 
ment 
pupil 
activities 

Select 
songs 

Supply 

the 
music 

1-49 
50-99 
100-149 
150- 

112 

35 

10 

1 

16 

7 
5 
2 

1 

5 
5 

34 

42 

17 

8 

10 

7 

14 

2 

1 

4 

5 
5 
1 

Totals 

158 

30 

11 

101 

33 

5 

11 

report  current  events  as  a  feature,  and  five  give  school  plays  as 
features  of  the  school  assembly. 

As  to  the  nature  and  amount  of  pupil  participation  in  conducting 
the  assemblies,  188  schools  report  that  the  pupils  have  little  or  no 
part,  121  report  that  the  pupils  plan,  prepare  and  present  programs; 
33  report  that  the  pupils  make  announcements  of  pupil  activities; 
11  that  the  pupils  furnish  the  music,  and  14  that  the  pupils  cooper- 
ate with  principal  and  teachers  in  controlling  the  assemblies. 

The  school  assembly  apparently  has  a  real  function  in  the  rural 
high  school,  but  a  study  of  its  predominant  characteristics  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  it  might  be  of  much  more  value  if  the  proportion 
of  pupil  responsibility  for  its  control  and  programs  were  increased. 
(See  Table  33.) 

Community  Organizations  Actively  Cooperating  with  the 

School 

Reports  from  392  principals  indicate  that  in  many  communities 
local  organizations  are  actively  cooperating  with  the  principal  and 
teachers  in  making  the  work  of  the  high  school  and  the  grades  more 
effective.  The  most  prominent  community  organizations  back  of 
the  school  and  its  work,  as  indicated  by  the  data,  are  the  Parent- 
Teachers '  Associations  and  the  Grange.  Home  and  School  Clubs, 
Women's  Cooperative  Clubs,  and  the  Home  Bureaus,  are  also 
active  in  many  communities  in  advancing  the  work  of  the  local 
high  school. 

A  significant  fact,  however,  is  that  59  percent  of  the  principals 
report  no  organized  community  effort  being  made  to  cooperate  with 
the  efforts  of  the  schools.  Another  significant  fact  is  that  the  great- 
est lack  of  community  support,  as  evidenced  by  active  assistance 
given  the  school  in  meeting  its  problems,  is  found  with  respect  to  the 
smaller  high  schools  with  a  high  school  pupil  enrolment  of  49  or  less. 
In  these  smaller  schools  66  percent  report  no  active  cooperation 
of  community  organizations  as  compared  with  50  percent  for 
schools  with  a  high  school  enrolment  of  50  or  more.  In  the  smaller 
schools,  active  community  cooperation  is  much  too  rare,  and  for  all 
rural  high  schools  in  New  York  it  is  much  less  evident  than  in  the 
case  of  city  high  school  communities.     (See  Table  34.) 

69 


Table  34. 


^immunity  Organizations  Actively  Cooperating  With  the 
School.     (Data  from  392  Schools) 


Type  of 
school 

No 
or- 
gan- 
iza- 
tion 

Some 
or- 
Kan- 
iza- 
tion 

Par- 

ent- 

Teach- 

ers 

Home 

and 
School 

Club 

Wom- 
en's 

Coop- 
era- 
tive 
Club 

Grange 

Home 
Bu- 
reau 

Com- 
mu- 
nity 
Cen- 
ter 

Wom- 
en's 

Chris- 
tian 

Temp. 
Un- 
ion 

Ri-d 
Cross 

Alum- 
ni 

Asso- 
cia- 
tion 

1-49  enrol- 
ment less 
than      4 
vears .  .  . 

1-49 

50-99 

100-149    .  . 

150-above 

37 

112 

55 

23 

7 

25 
50 
55 
13 
15 

10 
19 
25 
13 
9 

20 

3 
10 

3 

8 
21 
15 
6 
5 

7 
4 

3 

2 

5 

3 

4 

Total .  .  . 

234 

158 

76 

20 

16 

55 

11 

5 

5 

3 

4 

68$ 


1-49 


50-99 


100-149 


150+ 


Size  of  schools-enrolment 

Diagram  9. — Percent  of  New  York  rural  high  schools  of  different  types  having 

the  active  cooperation^  community  organizations 

70 


Most  Frequent  Ways  in  which  Community   Organizations  Assist  the 

Schools 

Prizes  for  school  work 20 

Providing  playgrounds  and  equipment 14 

School  lunches 12 

Lecture  course  and  educational  speakers 10 

Health  program 5 

Better  home  conditions 4 

School  foru  m 9 

Furnishing  aid  to  needy  children 4 

Correcting  attendance 4 

Social  entertainments  for  pupils  and  teachers 4 

Visiting  the  school 5 

Written  reports  on  school  work 2 

Appeals  Made  by  Principals  of  the  Rural  High  Schools  to 

Interest  Pupils  from  Rural  Schools  in  High  School 

Education 

A  little  over  52  percent  of  the  principals  of  the  schools  studied  re- 
port no  definite  effort  to  interest  rural  children  in  high  school  edu- 
cation, while  about  47  percent  use  some  plan  for  getting  them  to 
attend  high  school.  Thirty-eight  principals  make  personal  calls 
upon  pupils  ready  to  enter  high  school  and  solicit  them  personally. 
Eleven  principals  report  that  they  encourage  prospective  high 
school  pupils  from  rural  districts  to  visit  their  high  school  and  see 
what  it  is  like.  Other  principals  mention  various  plans  for  interest- 
ing rural  pupils  in  continuing  their  education  in  the  high  school. 
(See  Table  35.) 


Table  35. — Appeals  Made  by  Principal  of  High  School  to  Interest 
Pupils  from  Rural  Schools  in  High  School  Education.  (385  Princi- 
pals) 

Nature  of  the  Appeal  Made 


Type  of 

school 

No 
appeal 

Some 
form 

of 
appeal 

Per- 
sonal 
calls 

Free 
tui- 
tion 

Urge 
pupils 

to 
visit 

Voca- 
tional 
courses 

Visits, 
talks, 
parties 

Can- 
vass 
rural 
schools 

Advo- 
cate 

benefit 
of 

educa- 
tion 

1-49  less 
than  4 
years 
1-  49 
50-  99 
100-149 
150- 

40 
85 
45 
28 
13 

20 
69 
55 
21 
9 

4 

14 
16 
3 

1 

1 
3 

"l 

3 
5 
3 

3 

1 

18 

7 
3 

4 

1 
2 

1 
3 

1 

18 

16 

5 

3 

Totals. . . . 

211 

174 

38 

6 

11 

32 

7 

4 

43 

Note. — Three  principals  report  that  they  mail  handbooks  of  information  on  the  high 
school  offerings  to  prospective  pupils;  eight  principals  report  use  of  the  local  paper  to 
advertise  high  school  education;  five  mention  the  Junior  Project;  two,  high  school  exhibits; 
and  seven,  the  influence  of  teachers  and  parents. 

71 


The  Regents  Examination  System  and  the  Administration 
of  the  New  York  Rural  High  School 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  determining  the  status  of  a 
high  school  in  New  York  is  its  efficiency  in  bringing  its  pupils  suc- 
cessfully through  the  Regents  examinations.  To  be  recognized  as 
an  accredited  school  and  be  eligible  for  State  apportionments  it 
must  make  use  of  the  Regents  academic  examinations,  at  least  in 
the  last  two  years  of  the  school 's  course.  It  may  promote  or  grad- 
uate pupils  on  the  basis  of  local  standards,  but  such  pupils  do  not  re- 
ceive the  official  recognition  of  the  State.  Quoting  from  Article  31 
of  the  Regents  rules:  "Success  in  passing  the  Regents  examina- 
tions shall  not  be  deemed  necessary  for  the  promotion  or  graduation 
of  pupils  from  schools  that  prefer  to  determine  such  advancements 
by  their  own  local  standards."  This  option  in  the  Regents  rules 
has  had  practically  no  bearing  upon  the  rural  high  schools  with  their 
limited  curricula  and  their  need  of  maintaining  work  meeting  the 
demands  of  the  State  Department  as  measured  by  the  Regents 
examinations. 

Undoubtedly  it  is  highly  desirable  that  a  State  should  exercise  its 
right  to  set  up  standards  to  be  used  as  a  basis  for  determining  the 
status  of  secondary  schools  and  for  stimulating  such  schools  to  a 
better  quality  of  work.  It  is  not  so  clear,  however,  in  the  light  of 
the  comparative  unreliability  of  any  written  test  as  a  sole  measure 
of  a  pupil 's  ability  in  a  subject,  that  his  success  or  failure  over  one 
or  more  year 's  work  should  be  based  entirely  upon  his  showing  in  a 
written  examination  of  an  hour  and  a  half  or  two  hours  in  duration. 
Again  it  is  more  doubtful  if  the  standardization  of  high  school  in- 
struction should  be  sought  largely  through  the  pupil,  especially 
when  such  a  means  acts  directly  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  pupil 
who  is  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  required  to  attend  a  high  school  in 
which  the  teaching  staff  is  composed  mainly  of  young,  inexperienced, 
and  poorly  trained  persons.  Finally,  if  the  present-day  aims  and 
objectives  of  the  secondary  school  are  accepted,  it  does  not  seem 
probable  that  the  uniformity  in  subject  matter  necessarily  result- 
ing from  State-wide  uniform  examinations  is  desirable. 

A  study  of  the  failures  in  New  York  high  schools  over  a  period  of 
twelve  years,  1907-1918,  shows:  (1)  that  the  standard  of  difficulty 

72 


in  the  Regents  examinations  in  any  high  school  subject  fluctuates 
greatly  from  year  to  year,  for  it  is  not  probable  that  the  standard  of 
instruction  over  the  State  as  a  whole  varies  to  any  appreciable  ex- 
tent from  one  year  to  the  next;  (2)  that  the  standard  as  regards 
different  subjects  for  any  one  year  or  period  of  years  is  exceedingly 
different;  and  (3)  that  the  percentage  of  failures  in  New  York  high 
schools  is  far  in  excess  of  any  legitimate  percentage.  Assuming 
that  the  subject-matter  in  the  subjects  taught  in  the  high  schools  of 
the  State  is  adapted  to  the  capacities  and  maturity  of  its  pupils  and 
that  the  instruction  is  of  average  efficiency,  it  would  seem  that  any- 
thing above  seven  to  10  percent  in  the  number  of  failures  should  be 
looked  upon  as  a  matter  of  serious  concern.  Certainly,  a  consistent 
policy  of  failing  over  25  percent  of  the  pupils  each  year  in  the  rural 
high  schools  of  the  State,  over  a  period  of  twelve  years,  not  counting 
at  all  the  significant  mortality  of  pupils  not  permitted  by  the  local 
authorities  to  enter  the  examinations,  must  be  regarded  as  opposed 
to  all  present-day  ideals  as  to  the  aims  and  purposes  of  public  second- 
ary education.  In  connection  with  this  heavy  percentage  of  failure 
must  be  considered  also  the  effect  upon  the  problems  of  pupil  elim- 
ination and  retardation,  the  heavy  burdens  in  expense  and  energy 
in  carrying  on  instruction  for  repeating  pupils,  and  most  serious  of 
all  the  factor  of  discouragement  fostered  by  such  a  heavy  toll  in 
failures. 

In  the  rural  high  schools  the  high  percentage  of  failures  among 
high  school  pupils  brings  in  its  train  several  very  serious  problems 
of  administration  and  organization.  In  the  first  place  the  number 
of  pupils  failed  in  the  Regents  examinations  does  not  give  the 
complete  story.  Many  pupils  who  have  done  the  work  in  the  sub- 
ject throughout  the  year  are  not  permitted  to  enter  the  examina- 
tions, so  the  total  number  failing  is  materially  above  the  figures  al- 
ready given.  Rural  high  school  principals  reported  in  many  cases 
that  they  used  a  series  of  preliminary  tests  specifically  designed  to 
determine  whether  or  not  the  pupils  in  any  subject  should  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  Regents  examinations.  One  principal,  proud  of  the  fact 
that  his  school  had  but  a  small  number  of  papers  returned  each 
year,  showed  his  record  of  his  first  year  Latin  class  from  which  he 


73 


had  already  eliminated  (April,  1921)  50  percent  of  those  who  began 
the  year  in  that  subject. 

In  rural  high  schools,  particularly  with  an  enrolment  above  50, 
with  an  already  overcrowded  teaching  schedule,  it  is  commonly 
necessary  year  after  year  to  maintain  extra  classes  for  repeating 
pupils  in  elementary  algebra,  elementary  biology  and  less  frequently 
in  one  or  more  of  the  other  subjects.  Such  repeating  classes  seri- 
ously aggravate  the  already  grave  problems  of  inadequate  room  and 
teaching  force .  In  smaller  schools  classes  are  much  hampered  by  the 
large  numbers  of  repeaters  whose  needs  are  hard  to  harmonize  with 
the  needs  of  those  who  are  pursuing  the  subject  for  the  first  time. 

The  fact  that  the  reports  from  the  June  Regents  examinations 
are  not  in  the  hands  of  the  high  school  principals  before  graduation 
day  has  brought  into  existence  diverse  modes  of  procedure  in  the 
rural  high  schools  in  the  matter  of  graduation,  some  of  them  of 
questionable  soundness.  Furthermore,  there  is  great  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  requirements  for  graduation  in  the  rural  high  schools. 
What  would  seem  to  be  a  questionable  practice  is  that  of  permitting 
a  pupil  to  go  through  the  graduation  exercises  to  receive  an  unsigned 
diploma  which  is  never  signed  unless  the  report  from  the  Regents 
examinations  is  satisfactory. 

The  following  statements  are  typical  as  to  the  procedure  followed 
in  the  rural  high  schools: 

"Academic  school  diplomas  are  not  granted  until  the  final  report 
of  all  Regents  examinations  is  received,  though  some  students  have 
been  allowed  to  go  through  the  graduation  exercises  conditionally." 

"Graduate  conditionally  and  require  Regents  before  the  diploma 
is  signed." 

"Unsigned  diplomas." 

"Full  Regents  requirements  for  graduation  must  be  met  before 
school  diplomas  are  granted." 

Such  conditions  of  uncertainty  on  the  part  of  pupils  graduating 
from  high  school  at  the  time  of  graduation  are  to  be  deplored.  If 
the  policy  of  State  examinations  for  promotion  and  graduation  from 
rural  high  schools  must  be  continued  in  New  York,  it  is  suggested 
cither  that  the  final  examinations  be  given  earlier  in  the  year  or  that 
the  marking  of  the  local  principal  and  teacher  should  be  accepted  for 

74 


the  last  semester.  A  pupil,  it  would  appear,  should  know  with 
reasonable  certainty  at  least  a  month  before  graduation  time 
whether  or  not  his  four  years  of  work  have  been  of  a  character  to 
entitle  him  to  a  diploma  recognized  by  the  local  school  and  by  the 
State.1 

In  the  Regents  Rules,  article  332  item  (b),  reads  in  regard  to  the 
minimum  passing  mark  in  Regents  examinations: 

"In  all  academic  papers  for  credit  toward  an  academic  diploma, 
written  by  pupils  who  have  given  the  required  time  to  the  study  in 
recognized  academic  schools — 60  percent,"  and  item  (d)  reads, 
"In  all  academic  papers  written  by  pupils  who  have  given  the  re- 
quired time  to  the  study,  but  not  in  recognized  academic  schools — 
75  percent.'' 

Ruling  (d)  seems  to  be  placing  an  unnecessarily  heavy  burden 
upon  the  pupil  doing  high  school  work  in  a  small  rural  high  school 
offering  some  high  school  subjects  but  not  accredited.  Such  a 
pupil  must  pass  the  Regents  examination  in  any  secondary  school 
subject  with  a  standing  15  percent  higher  than  that  required  of  a 
pupil  who  has  studied  the  same  subject  in  an  accredited  high  school. 
If  the  examination  is  a  fair  criterion  for  estimating  a  pupil's  pro- 
ficiency in  a  subject,  as  it  apparently  is  considered,  it  would  appear 
to  be  putting  an  undue  burden  upon  the  pupil  who  happens  to  be 
attending  a  small  rural  high  school.  It  is  asking  him  to  attain  a 
higher  degree  of  proficiency  than  is  demanded  of  a  pupil  presumably 
doing  the  work  under  the  direction  of  a  better  teacher  and  with 
better  equipment  in  a  fully  accredited  high  school. 

As  an  administrative  means  for  standardizing  the  rural  high 

school  work  of  New  York  the  system  of  Regents  examinations,  at 

least  as  it  now  operates,  seems  to  have  few  points  in  its  favor.     It 

tends  to  formalize  high  school    instruction  and    over-emphasize 

mechanical  drill  and  vague  objectives.     It  hinders  the  development 

of  high  school  work  in  the  direction  of  pupil  and  community  needs 

1  That  this  is  a  weakness  in  the  present  system  of  promotion  and  that  it  has 
been  so  recognized  by  the  State  department  of  education  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  Assistant  Commissioner  for  Secondary  Education,  then  the  Head 
Inspector,  called  attention  to  it  in  his  report  of  1897.  In  this  report  he  made 
recommendations  looking  toward  the  elimination  in  large  part  of  this  weakness 
in  the  system  of  promotion.  See  1897  Report  of  the  Department  of  Examina- 
tions, page  90. 

75 


and  gives  but  little  opportunity  for  initiative  and  independent 
thinking  on  the  part  of  high  school  principals  and  teachers.  It  de- 
mands an  unreasonable  toll  in  failures  from  the  high  school  popula- 
tion and  tends  to  destroy  interest  and  encourages  elimination  and 
retardation.  It  places  an  unnecessarily  heavy  financial  burden 
upon  the  schools  of  the  State  because  of  the  large  numbers  of  re- 
peaters and  seriously  augments  the  teaching  load  in  the  rural  high 
schools.  And  finally  it  places  the  measure  of  success  upon  a  basis 
which  modern  experimentation  in  education  has  proved  unreliable 
and  which  is  too  narrow  as  the  sole  criterion  of  a  pupil 's  ability.  It 
arrives  at  all  its  results  in  the  direction  of  high  standards  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  pupil  and,  finally,  it  seriously  augments  the  adminis- 
trative and  instructional  burdens  of  the  rural  high  school.1 

Buildings  and  Equipment  of  the  Rural  High  School 
An  important  factor  in  the  efficiency  of  the  work  of  a  high  school 
from  its  administrative  side  as  it  applies  to  the  organization  of  the 
school  and  to  the  control  of  instruction  is  the  high  school  building 
and  its  equipment.  Poor  arrangement  and  inadequate  building 
and  ground  facilities  hamper  the  principal  and  his  corps  of  teachers 
in  every  direction.  While  there  are  some  rural  high  school  build- 
ings in  New  York  well  designed  to  meet  the  demands  of  modern 
high  school  work,  too  large  a  percentage  of  them  are  ill  fitted  for 
the  work  necessarily  undertaken  in  them. 

For  the  efficient  performance  of  his  duties  as  a  high  school  prin- 
cipal the  principal  requires  an  office.  He  must,  if  he  is  to  keep  in- 
formed as  to  the  work  of  his  school,  have  on  file  sufficient  data  in  re- 
gard to  courses  of  study,  pupils,  teachers,  and  the  many  activities 
of  his  school.  This  material  should  be  where  it  is  available  and 
safe.  He  also  needs  as  the  director  of  his  school  a  room  where  he 
may  consult  with  patrons,  pupils,  and  teachers  (without  interrup- 
tion) on  the  various  problems  that  invariably  arise.  The  principal 
in  the  New  York  rural  high  school  lacks  this  highly  necessary  room 
in  over  50  percent  of  the  high  schools. 

A  part  of  a  high  school 's  equipment  not  so  essential  as  the  prin- 

1  For  full  discussion  with  statistics  see  Dr.  Krusc's  study,  The  State  System 
of  Examinations,  Administration  and  Supervision. 

76 


cipal's  office  and  yet  a  valuable  feature  of  every  high  school  is  a 
teacher 's  room .  Over  80  percent  of  the  New  York  rural  high  schools 
are  lacking  in  this  respect. 

It  is  fully  recognized  that  one  of  the  functions  of  the  modern 
high  school  is  health  education.  The  Committee  on  the  Reorgani- 
zation of  Secondary  Education  has  placed  health  as  one  of  the 
major  aims  of  the  secondary  school.  The  realization  of  this  aim 
requires  both  a  gymnasium  and  playground  space  sufficiently  ample 
in  size  for  athletic  fields.  New  York  rural  high  schools  were  in  the 
majority  of  instances  constructed  and  located  when  knowledge  of 
text-book  material  was  regarded  as  the  sole  aim  of  the  secondary 
school.  As  a  result  but  few  rural  high  schools  are  fitted  to  meet 
adequately  the  demands  with  regard  to  health  education.  Over 
80  percent  of  the  rural  high  schools  have  no  gymnasium.  Over  43 
percent  have  a  play  area  of  less  than  one-half  acre;  over  24  percent 
have  less  than  one-fourth  acre,  and  five  percent  have  no  playground 
space  at  all.  In  many  instances  when  the  space  is  sufficiently  large 
the  ground  is  unfitted  for  playground  and  athletic  fields. 

With  regard  to  school  auditoriums,  while  some  of  the  more 
recent  high  schools  have  good  auditoriums  or  auditorium  and  study 
rooms  combined,  over  75  percent  have  no  auditorium.  With  the 
increased  attention  to  extra-class-room  activities  a  school  without 
an  auditorium  equipped  with  stage  and  curtains  is  seriously  ham- 
pered in  its  work.  It  seems  feasible  also  that  the  rural  high  school 
should  become  the  center  for  many  activities,  including  the  com- 
munity as  well  as  the  school  population.  It  demands  for  any  ade- 
quate realization  of  its  functions  a  room  equipped  for  accommodating 
its  entire  school  population  and  the  patrons  of  the  school. 

As  concerns  its  work  in  the  stricter  sense,  that  of  regular  class- 
room instruction,  the  rural  high  school  is  inadequate.  Twenty- 
one  percent  of  the  school  buildings  have  but  one  class  room  in  ad- 
dition to  the  study  room.  This  necessitates  the  teaching  of  a  class 
each  period  of  the  day  in  a  room  where  other  pupils  are  studying. 
Fifty- three  percent  of  the  buildings  have  only  two  class  rooms  in 
addition  to  the  study  room. 

The  best  type  of  high  school  education  at  the  present  time  makes 
necessary  much  better  facilities  in  the  matter  of  library  and  labora- 


lory.  Without  a  good  library  for  reference  work  and  a  laboratory 
equipped  for  demonstration  and  laboratory  work  in  at  least  two 
sciences  a  high  school  cannot  hope  to  give  its  pupils  a  high  school 
education  of  a  recognized  standard.  Instruction  today  in  history, 
literature,  the  sciences,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  the  other  subjects 
finds  a  good  library  essential.  Science  instruction  should  center 
around  the  laboratory.  Practically  all  rural  high  schools  have 
both  libraries  and  laboratories,  but  too  frequently  they  are  poorly 
equipped,  poorly  arranged  and  inconveniently  situated.  The  me- 
dian score  of  the  New  York  rural  high  school  library,  not  including 
its  equipment  of  books  and  magazines,  is  approximately  5  of  a  pos- 
sible 10;  and  the  median  score  of  the  laboratory  is  13  on  the  basis 
of  a  possible  20.  In  other  words,  the  library  and  laboratory  equip- 
ment, not  including  books,  magazines  or  apparatus,  is  a  little  more 
than  half  what  it  should  be  if  the  rural  high  school  pupil  is  to  have 
advantages  comparable  to  those  of  the  pupil  in  city  high  schools  in 
the  phases  of  high  school  work  dependent  upon  the  library  and  the 
science  laboratory. 

Finally  all  facts  indicate  that  the  administrator  of  the  rural  high 
school  labors  at  a  great  disadvantage  in  his  attempts  to  give  to  his 
community  the  results  from  its  school  system  that  it  should  get. 
Close  attention  should  be  given  in  the  future  development  of  the 
rural  high  school  to  those  factors  of  building  and  physical  equip- 
ment that  are  essential  to  the  realization  of  an  efficient  high  school. 

*  For  a  detailed  statistical  study  see  Dr.  Buttenvorth:  School  Buildings  and 
(J  rounds. 


78 


CHAPTER  IV 

RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT 
OF  THE  NEW  YORK  RURAL   HIGH  SCHOOL 
WITH  RESPECT  TO  ITS  ADMINISTRA- 
TION AND  SUPERVISION 

I.  General  Recommendations 
1.  Every  phase  of  the  study  of  the  New  York  rural  high  school 
emphasizes  the  need  of  well-defined  objectives.  While  individual 
principals  and  teachers  are  doing  excellent  work,  in  general  there  is  a 
very  evident  vagueness  as  to  the  ends  to  be  sought.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  one  predominant  idea,  constantly  in  the  minds  of 
practically  all  principals  and  teachers,  that  they  must  prepare  their 
pupils  to  pass  the  Regents  examinations,  there  is  a  lack  of  clarity  as 
to  the  functions  of  secondary  education  in  rural  communities  and  as 
to  the  organization  adapted  to  realizing  these  functions.  The  rela- 
tions of  the  principal  to  the  school  board,  to  the  community  in 
which  he  serves,  to  his  teaching  staff,  and  to  the  pupils,  are  in  no 
way  sufficiently  determined.  His  powers  with  regard  to  the  curric- 
ulum and  courses  of  study  in  his  school  are  meagre  and  vague. 
His  duties  and  powers  as  the  local  executive  officer  and  the  super- 
visor of  instruction  are  indefinite. 

In  view  of  these  facts  it  is  recommended  that  steps  be  taken  to 
set  up  as  clearly  and  specifically  as  possible  tentative  objectives  as 
to  the  functions  of  rural  secondary  education  and  as  to  the  duties 
and  responsibilities  of  the  several  agencies  and  individuals  working 
toward  their  realization.  It  is  also  recommended  that  a  body  be 
formed  of  persons  fitted  to  undertake  such  a  responsibility,  by  rea- 
son of  their  interest  in  and  acquaintance  with  the  problems  of  rural 
secondary  education,  to  work  in  the  direction  of  establishing  func- 

79 


tional  objectives  for  the  rural  high  school  and  for  ensuring  changes 
as  the  needs  of  the  future  may  require. 

2.  Without  specific  agencies  for  keeping  before  high  school  prin- 
cipals in  the  rural  high  schools  the  latest  ideas  and  means  for  im- 
proving their  work,  the  preceding  recommendation  could  not  be 
effective .  It  would  be  necessary  to  bring  principals  and  teachers 
in  service  in  touch  with  developments  in  administration,  supervision, 
and  instruction.  It  would  seem  advisable  to  make  more  specific 
provision  for  the  consideration  of  rural  high  school  problems  through 
such  existing  agencies  as  the  State  Teachers '  Association  and  the 
various  local  and  regional  teachers'  organizations.  These,  how- 
ever, should  be  supplemented  by  agencies  to  be  devised  specifically 
for  the  training  of  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers  in  ser- 
vice.1 

II.  The  High  School  Principal 
At  the  present  time  the  work  of  the  principal  in  the  rural  high 
school,  if  judged  by  the  distribution  of  his  time,  is  primarily  that  of 
a  class-room  instructor.  While  nominally  he  is  the  executive  head 
of  the  school  and  the  supervisor  of  instruction,  both  in  the  high 
school  and  the  elementary  grades,  in  practice  he  is  given  but  little 
time  for  the  many  responsibilities  that  should  belong  to  his  position . 
He  has  no  well-defined  powers  as  the  head  of  his  school.  As  a 
result  of  the  vagueness  and  indefiniteness  of  his  position,  he  is 
often  unable  to  initiate  or  to  put  into  practice  plans  for  increasing 
the  efficiency  of  his  school.  In  view  of  the  present  indefinite  status 
of  the  rural  high  school  principal,  it  is  recommended  that: 

1.  There  be  set  up  more  specific  definitions  as  to  the  rural  high 
school  principal's  duties,  powers,  and  responsibilities  for  the  various 
classes  of  rural  high  schools,  classification  being  made  on  the  basis 
of  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  high  school  and  in  the  elementary 
grades,  where  he  is  also  in  charge  of  elementary  instruction : 

(a)  as  the  executive  officer  of  the  local  school  board; 

(b)  as  the  supervisor  of  class-room  instruction; 

(c)  as  the  director  of  the  internal  organization  of  the  school; 

1  For  more  complete  recommendations  see  Chapter  V,  The  Teaching  Staff, 
Article  III  of  recommendations. 

So 


(</)  as  to  his  powers  and  responsibilities  in  relation  to  the  high 
school  curricula  and  courses  of  study; 

(e)  as  to  the  maximum  amount  of  time  to  be  given  to  class-room 
instruction  in  the  several  classes  of  schools; 

(/)  as  to  the  minimum  amount  of  time  to  be  given  to  supervision 
of  instruction  in  the  several  classes  of  schools. 

(g)  as  to  powers  and  responsibilities  in  relation  to  pupils  and 
pupil  activities. 

III.  The  High  School  Teacher 

With  regard  to  the  status  of  the  teacher  in  the  rural  high  school 
there  is  need  of  specific  definitions  as  to  his  duties  and  responsibili- 
ties:   The  following  recommendations  are  made: 

1.  That  there  be  set  up  definite  standards  as  to  the  maximum 
amount  of  teaching  to  be  permitted,  in  terms  of  recitation  periods,  a 
teacher  in  a  standard  or  accredited  rural  high  school. 

2.  That  there  be  formulated  a  clearer  definition  as  to  the  relation 
of  the  teacher  to  the  administrative  and  supervisory  head  of  the 
school. 

3.  That  where  the  high  school  principal  is  also  principal  of  the 
elementary  grades,  recommendation  (2)  be  also  interpreted  to  apply 
to  the  teacher  in  the  elementary  grades.  This  recommendation  is 
made  because  of  the  lack  of  understanding  in  many  of  the  smaller 
schools  as  to  the  relation  of  the  teacher  of  the  elementary  grades  to 
the  high  school  principal. 

IV.  Flexibility  in  the  Administration  of  High  School  Cur- 
ricula and  Courses  of  Study 

One  of  the  problems  of  utmost  importance  in  the  rural  high  school 
from  the  administrative  standpoint  springs  from  the  comparative 
rigidity  of  its  curriculum.  The  Regents  requirements  for  an  aca- 
demic diploma  are  comparatively  flexible.  In  practice,  however,  the 
emphasis  placed  upon  certain  groups  of  subjects,  as  the  languages 
and  mathematics,  through  the  requirements  for  State  scholarships, 
college  entrance  certificates,  and  suggested  programs  of  studies  for 
small  high  schools,  have  tended  to  limit  the  curricula  of  these  schools 
to  the  older,  more  formal  subjects.  There  is  a  serious  question,  in 
the  light  of  the  demands  made  upon  the  modern  secondary  school 
6  8i 


and  the  needs  of  modern  life,  as  to  the  relative  values  of  the  subjects 
offered  in  the  majority  of  rural  high  schools.  If  the  high  school  is  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  greatest  number  of  its  pupils,  it  would  seem 
that  the  local  high  school  should  be  encouraged  to  develop  curricula 
adapted  to  its  needs  and  given  greater  freedom  in  determining  its 
curricula  and  courses  of  study. 

1.  It  is  recommended  that  there  be  a  limitation  in  the  matter 
of  State  requirements  in  the  rural  high  schools  in  required  subjects 
and  in  the  subject-matter  of  courses  of  study  to  minimum  essentials 
in  subjects  vital  to  State  and  national  citizenship  and  health,  thus 
giving  opportunity  for  greater  initiative  and  freedom  to  local  high 
schools  in  offering  high  school  work  meeting  specific  local  needs  and 
the  major  demands  of  the  pupils  enrolled. 

2.  It  is  also  recommended  that  all  subjects  of  high  school  grade 
and  taught  by  a  qualified  teacher  be  given  equal  recognition  toward 
a  diploma  recognized  by  the  State,  provided  that  the  State  require- 
ments in  recommendation  (1)  be  met,  and  provided  there  has  been 
continuity  in  the  curriculum  followed  by  the  pupil. 

V.  Junior  High  Schools 

The  organization  of  secondary  education  with  the  Junior  high 
school  as  the  first  unit  should  be  of  great  value  in  New  York.  It 
is  suited  particularly  to  offer  the  rural  pupil  the  opportunity  of 
richer  and  more  varied  subject-matter  two  years  earlier  than  is  at 
present  possible.  It  should  bring  closer  together  the  elementary 
school  and  the  high  school  and  operate  to  reduce  the  elimination  of 
rural  pupils  before  reaching  the  high  school.  It  should  make  high 
school  education  more  available  to  rural  pupils  in  many  commun- 
ities by  permitting  the  organization  of  a  Junior  high  school  where 
the  community  is  too  small  to  maintain  a  four  year  high  school. 
In  these  smaller  communities  it  would  bring  together  a  body  of 
pupils  large  enough  to  make  possible  a  better  corps  of  teachers: 

1.  It  is  recommended  that  steps  be  taken  to  bring  about  the  or- 
ganization of  Junior  high  schools  in  rural  and  village  communities, 
to  encourage  their  development  through  State  aid  on  the  same 
basis  as  for  the  regular  high  school,  and  also  making  provision  for  a 
committee  for  the  formulation  of  suitable  objectives,  of  suggestive 

82 


curricula  and  courses  of  study  suited  to  the  maturity  and  needs  of 
pupils  of  junior  high  school  age,  and  with  provisions  for  flexibility 
to  meet  the  varied  local  needs  and  demands  inevitable  in  a  state 
like  New  York. 

VI.  Inspections 

In  a  state  the  size  of  New  York  it  seems  impracticable  for  the 
State  Department  of  Education  to  attempt  the  supervision  of  the 
high  schools  of  the  State.  In  the  first  place  it  cannot  keep  closely 
enough  in  touch  with  the  local  teachers  to  be  in  a  position  to  under- 
stand their  weaknesses  and  strengths,  the  necessary  basis  for  con- 
structive supervision.  In  the  second  place  it  cannot  know  the  local 
problems  and  conditions  peculiar  to  communities.  In  the  third 
place  it  is  not  economical  either  of  time  or  money  for  all  supervisors 
to  go  out  from  the  State  office  to  all  parts  of  the  State.  Finally, 
granting  that  the  factor  of  distance  could  be  overcome,  the  burden 
of  efficient  supervision  would  be  so  great  as  to  require  an  unwieldy 
central  organization. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  that  the  State  exercise  some  control  over 
the  local  high  schools.  It  is  necessary  that  it  act  as  a  standardizing 
agent  in  some  definite  way.  Because  of  its  relation  to  all  the  schools 
of  the  State  and  because  of  its  powers  with  respect  to  standards  of 
work  and  of  high  school  teachers  the  State  Department  of  Educa- 
tion should  function  as  an  inspectorial  agent  but  should  not  at- 
tempt supervision  except  as  an  incident  of  inspection. 

1.  It  is  recommended  that  the  State  Examinations  and  Inspec- 
tions Division  limit  its  function  as  regards  the  rural  high  schools  to 
that  of  inspection  only. 

VII.  Supervision 
One  of  the  most  outstanding  needs  of  the  New  York  rural  high 
school  is  that  of  supervision  of  class-room  instruction.  There  is  also 
needed  to  almost  an  equal  degree  supervision  of  school  organization 
and  the  broader  and  more  comprehensive  phases  of  the  work  of  the 
local  school.  At  the  present  time  the  State  Examinations  and  In- 
spections Division  is  unable  to  visit  many  of  the  rural  high 
schools  even  once  a  year,  as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  for  the  year 
1920-21  the  inspection  of  more  than  100  schools  was  delegated  to 

83 


the  district  superintendent.  The  district  superintendents  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  with  the  exception  of  the  smaller  rural  high 
schools,  have  confined  their  attention  mainly  to  the  one-teacher 
rural  schools  and  to  the  elementary  grades.  The  high  school 
principal  (see  Table  11)  has  been  engaged  mainly  in  class-room  in- 
struction except  in  the  larger  schools.  As  a  result  one  of  the  most 
important  means  of  improving  the  quality  of  work  done  in  the  rural 
high  school  is  very  inadequate. 

Sympathetic,  genuinely  constructive  supervision,  which  will 
operate  to  improve  the  individual  teacher  in  service  and  which  will 
also  bring  to  the  local  principal  a  viewpoint  broader  and  deeper 
than  is  possible  in  his  limited  field  of  experience,  and  which  at  the 
same  time  will  be  close  enough  to  evaluate  intelligently  the  local 
problems,  is  one  of  the  great  needs  of  the  rural  high  schools  in  New 
York. 

To  meet  these  needs  the  following  recommendations  are  made 
for  improving  the  supervision  of  the  rural  high  school: 

1.  That  requirements  be  made  upon  the  local  principal  for  a 
definite  portion  of  his  time,  to  vary  with  the  size  of  his  school,  to  be 
devoted  to  supervision,  and  that  to  ensure  him  the  necessary  time 
his  work  as  a  teacher  be  limited. 

2.  That  the  superintendent  of  the  intermediate  educational  ad- 
ministrative unit  have  as  one  of  his  duties  the  supervision  of  class- 
room instruction  and  school  organization  in  the  high  schools  within 
his  district.  With  the  provision  that  where  the  number  of  schools 
becomes  too  large  or  where  the  superintendent  of  the  intermediate 
unit  has  his  time  fully  taken  up  by  his  administrative  duties,  he 
shall  be  given  the  authority  to  appoint,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
his  board  and  according  to  the  standards  of  qualification  of  the 
State  Education  Department,  a  supervisor  of  secondary  education 
for  that  administrative  unit. 

VIII.  Buildings  and  Equipment 

A  school  building,  its  equipment  and  grounds  should  be  of  such  a 

character  as  to  offer  the  most  effective  and  economical  physical 

surroundings  for  the  realization  of  the  objectives  of  the  school.     A 

high  school  building  should  be  so  constructed  and  ordered  as  to 

84 


meet  in  an  economical  way  all  the  demands  of  high  school  educa- 
tion. The  equipment  should  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  for 
efficient  work  in  the  various  phases  of  high  school  instruction,  both 
class-room  and  extra-class-room  in  type.  The  grounds  should  be 
ample  for  meeting  the  demands  upon  the  modern  high  school  in  its 
work  in  physical  education  and  training  in  habits  of  outdoor  recrea- 
tion. Measured  in  view  of  these  requirements,  New  York  rural 
high  school  buildings  and  their  equipment  and  grounds  are  in  the 
main  far  from  satisfactory.  Some  of  the  schools  measure  up  to  the 
standard  and  others  fall  short  in  certain  particular  details.  The 
average  of  all  the  rural  high  schools  is  below  any  reasonable 
standard: 

1.  It  is  recommended  that  more  specific  requirements  be  set  up 
as  to  rural  high  school  buildings  and  that  adequate  building,  equip- 
ment and  grounds  for  meeting  the  demands  of  secondary  education 
be  required  for  the  accrediting  of  a  high  school. 

2.  It  is  recommended  that  the  nature  of  the  equipment,  particu- 
larly as  referring  to  laboratory  and  library,  its  value  for  the  work 
which  the  school  does,  be  the  basis  of  standardization  rather  than 
the  total  money  value  of  the  equipment,  the  present  basis  of  ac- 
crediting the  high  school. 

IX.  Extra-Class-Room  Activities 
One  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  the  New  York  rural 
high  schools  is  the  comparative  lack  of  attention  given  to  pupil 
activities,  both  of  a  purely  social  nature  and  of  a  type  primarily 
educational.  In  the  schools  where  they  are  found  such  activities 
are  usually  regarded  as  extraneous  to  the  real  work  of  the  school. 
While  the  nature  of  these  activities,  particularly  those  of  a  type 
mainly  educational,  is  a  curriculum  problem,  the  manner  of  their 
control  and  organization  and  their  relation  to  the  other  work  of 
the  school  is  a  problem  of  administration. 

Because  of  the  important  place  which  extra-class-room  activities 
are  taking  in  the  modern  high  school,  and  especially  because  of  their 
value  for  pupils  from  rural  communities  in  affording  them  actual 
practice  in  cooperative  group  activities,  and  finally,  because  of 
their  value  in  building  up  a  desirable  school  spirit  and  interest  in 
the  school,   it  is  recommended: 

85 


1.  That  attention  be  given  to  this  phase  of  rural  high  school 
work,  and 

2.  That  guidance  be  given  high  school  principals  and  teachers  in 
rural  high  schools  as  to  practicable  ways  of  organizing  the  schools 
so  that  this  phase  of  high  school  work  may  be  given  a  place  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  program  of  the  school. 


X.  Pupil  Guidance  and  Supervised  Study 
In  New  York  rural  high  schools  a  comparatively  small  percent- 
age have  any  definite  organization  either  in  the  direction  of  offering 
guidance  to  pupils  in  their  school  work  and  life  plans  or  in  study 
under  the  supervision  of  the  instructor.  Because  of  the  need  of 
the  former  and  the  value  of  the  latter,  particularly  for  pupils  be- 
ginning high  school  work,  it  is  recommended  that  consideration  be 
given  to  these  problems  of  high  school  organization  for  the  purpose 
of  devising  means  for  meeting  them  more  effectively  in  rural  high 
schools. 

XI.  Financing  the  Rural  High  Schools 

The  study  of  the  financial  support  of  the  rural  high  school  shows 
that  under  the  existing  system  there  is  great  variability  in  the 
burden  borne  by  different  high  school  communities.  Some  com- 
munities are  assuming  a  financial  burden  for  the  support  of  their 
local  high  school  that  is  excessive.  Other  communities  with  far 
greater  taxable  wealth  and  with  relatively  small  high  school  popula- 
tions are  able  to  bear  the  burden  of  their  high  school  with  ease. 
This  lack  of  equality  in  the  financial  burden  of  secondary  education 
is  due  largely  to  the  small  proportion  of  the  cost  borne  by  the  State. 
(For  full  discussion,  see  Dr.  Updegraff's  study.)  To  equalize  the 
cost  of  rural  secondary  education  in  New  York,  it  is  recommended: 

1.  That  the  taxation  unit  for  the  support  of  rural  secondary  ed- 
ucation be  made  large  enough  to  include  several  high  school  dis- 
tricts. 

2.  That  in  the  distribution  of  State  aid  to  rural  high  schools  there 
should  be  a  recognition  of  the  principles  set  forth  in  Dr.  Updegraff's 

86 


study  of  school  support.  In  general  this  would  mean  that  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  cost  of  rural  secondary  education  be  borne  by  the 
State  than  at  present. 

XII.  The  Standardization  of  the  Rural  High  School 
From  every  angle  of  approach  the  most  important  factor  in  the 
standardization  of  the  New  York  rural  high  school  is  the  system  of 
Regents  examinations.  It  colors  every  problem  of  administration 
and  organization  in  the  rural  high  school.  It  operates  toward  the 
formalization  of  all  work.  While  public  secondary  education  should 
select  by  differentiation  among  pupils,  it  emphasizes  selection  by 
elimination.  Finally,  the  whole  scheme  of  standardization  of  the 
rural  high  school  of  New  York  places  the  burden  primarily  upon  the 
pupil. 

It  is  recommended: 

1.  That  there  be  formulated  a  plan  for  standardizing  the  rural 
high  schools  of  New  York,  throwing  the  burden  upon  the  State  and 
the  community:  (a)  through  higher  qualifications  for  high  school 
principals  and  teachers  and  teaching  means;  (b)  through  more 
responsibility  upon  local  principals  and  teachers  for  the  promotion 
of  high  school  pupils ;  and  (c)  through  closer  supervision  of  the  work 
of  the  individual  teacher. 

2.  That  less  emphasis  be  placed  upon  the  Regents  examinations 
as  an  administrative  means  for  holding  schools  up  to  the  standard, 
and  greater  emphasis  upon  the  qualifications  and  professional 
training  of  the  high  school  principal  and  teacher  and  upon  instruc- 
tional equipment,  and  through  more  reliance  upon  helpful  super- 
vision. This  would  tend  to  develop  a  more  reliant  and  resourceful 
body  of  high  school  principals  and  teachers  in  the  rural  high  schools. 
At  the  present  time  the  school's  success  in  the  Regents  examina- 
tions as  the  measure  of  the  school 's  efficiency  puts  an  undue  burden 
at  all  stages  upon  the  pupil  who  is  compelled  to  get  his  high  school 
education  in  the  smaller  high  schools  under  less  efficient  teaching 
and  with  meager  instructional  materials.  It  also  makes  the  ob- 
jectives of  the  instruction  in  the  rural  high  schools  the  passing  of 
examinations  and  destroys  flexibility  and  vitality  of  instruction  and 
compels  undesirable  uniformity. 

87 


3.  That  more  weight  be  given  to  the  high  school  pupil's  daily 
work  as  a  criterion  for  promotion,  thus  encouraging  consistent 
continued  effort  upon  the  part  of  the  pupil  and  discouraging  the 
forced  cramming  of  the  last  month  of  each  half  year. 

4.  That  for  pupils  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  high  school,  and  ex- 
pecting to  be  graduated,  the  work  of  the  last  term  be  accepted  by 
the  State  on  the  basis  of  the  pupil's  ratings  by  the  local  teachers 
and  principal.  This  recommendation  is  made  because  of  the  in- 
justice to  high  school  boys  and  girls  who  in  many  rural  high  schools 
are  permitted  to  go  through  the  graduation  exercises  only  to  be  re- 
fused a  diploma  later  through  the  return  of  one  or  more  papers 
from  the  State  Department. 


PART  II 

THE  TEACHING  STAFF;  CLASS-ROOM 

INSTRUCTION;    AND  THE 

CURRICULUM 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  TEACHING  STAFF 

The  Basis  of  the  Study 

THE  study  of  the  teaching  staff  of  the  rural  high  school  is  based 
in  the  main  upon  data  from  416  principals  and  teachers  com- 
posing the  teaching  corps  of  123  rural  high  schools.  Of  the  416 
who  gave  practically  complete  reports,  123  were  principals  and  293 
were  teachers.  Forty-three  counties  are  represented  in  the  returns. 
While  the  data  are  from  approximately  only  one-sixth  of  the  rural 
high  school  principals  and  teachers  in  the  State,  they  represent  a 
large  proportion  of  the  counties  and  all  types  of  rural  high  schools 
on  the  basis  of  number  of  pupils  enrolled.  Consequently,  it  is  as- 
sumed that  things  true  of  the  principals  and  teachers  for  whom  data 
are  at  hand  are  true  with  respect  to  the  high  school  teaching  staff 
of  all  the  rural  high  schools  of  the  State.  The  soundness  of  this  as- 
sumption in  this  case  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  63  questionnaires 
received  after  the  first  353  had  been  tabulated  resulted  in  no 
material  change  in  any  item.  The  assumption  is  further  strength- 
ened by  the  fact  that  the  data  with  regard  to  the  academic  training 
of  the  416  principals  and  teachers  studied  are  in  close  agreement 
with  the  data  on  the  academic  training  of  2387  principals  and  teach- 
ers of  the  rural  high  schools  in  1919-20. 


The  distribution  of  the  416  teachers  as  to  counties  is  as  follows: 


Albany 5 

Allegany 5 

Broome 13 

Cattaraugus 9 

Cayuga 7 

Chautauqua 2 

Chemung 2 

Chenango 4 

Clinton 3 

Columbia 10 

Delaware 32 

Dutchess 15 

Essex 12 

Franklin 25 


Fulton 8 

Genesee 5 

Hamilton 10 

Herkimer 8 

Jefferson 8 

Lewis 8 


Livingston 11 

Madison 12 

Niagara 20 

Oneida 8 

Onondaga 10 

Ontario 12 

Orange 8 

Oswego 8 

Age 


Otsego 7 

Putnam 5 

Rensselaer 2 

Rockland 17 

St.  Lawrence 9 

Saratoga 12 

Steuben 18 

Suffolk 28 

Tioga 8 

Ulster 6 

Warren 6 

Washington 9 

Wayne 2 

Wyoming 7 


The  median  age  of  the  rural  high  school  principals  is  33.5  years. 
Practically  one-fourth  are  28  years  old  or  younger  and  one- 
fourth  are  over  43.  For  teachers  the  median  age  is  26.2  years. 
One-fourth  are  24  years  old  or  younger  and  one-fourth  are  31  or 
over.  For  both  principals  and  teachers,  the  median  age  is  27.8 
years.  One-fourth  are  24.5  years  old  or  younger  and  one-fourth  are 
36  years  of  age  or  older.  Comparing  the  rural  high  school 
teaching  staff  as  a  whole  with  elementary  teachers  in  village  schools 
of  the  State  shows  that  the  median  age  is  approximately  a  half  year 
less  than  that  of  the  elementary  teachers  in  village  schools.  Compared 
with  the  elementary  teachers  in  forty  New  York  cities  of  the  third 
class,  the  median  age  of  the  high  school  staff  is  found  to  be  more 
than  a  year  (1.2)  less.1  As  a  whole,  35.5  percent  of  the  rural  high 
school  staff  are  between  the  ages  of  20  and  25  as  compared  with  26.5 
percent  of  the  academic  teachers  in  the  high  schools  accredited  by 
the  North  Central  Association;  62.2  percent  are  between  the  ages 
of  20  and  30,  as  compared  with  53.8  percent  for  the  teachers  in 
the  high  schools  accredited  by  the  association.2  Excluding  the 
principals,  the  median  age  of  the  rural  high  school  teacher  is  two 
and  a  fourth  years  less  than  that  of  the  elementary  teacher  in  village 
schools  and  almost  three  (2.8)  years  less  than  that  of  the  elementary 
teachers  in  the  forty  New  York  cities.    All  data  indicate  that  a 

1  See  Dr.  Bagley's  study:  Teachers  and  Teacher  Preparation. 

2  Proceedings  of  the  Twenty-Seventh  Annual  Meeting  of  the  North  Central 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.     Part  I,  1922. 

90 


Table  36. — Age 

\t  Nearest  Birthday 

Age 

Princi- 
pals 

Teachers 

Total 

Percent 

principals 

Percent 
teachers 

Percent 
total 

20 

1 

1 

0.3 

0.2 

21 

6 

6 

2.0 

1.4 

22 

27 

27 

9.2 

6.5 

23 

4 

47 

51 

3.3 

16.0 

12.2 

24 

3 

34 

37 

2.4 

11.6 

8.9 

25 

1 

26 

27 

0.8 

8.9 

6.5 

26 

14 

25 

39 

11.4 

8.5 

9.4 

27 

5 

18 

23 

4.0 

6.1 

5.5 

28 

8 

11 

19 

6.5 

3.8 

4.6 

29 

8 

8 

16 

6.5 

2.7 

3.8 

30 

6 

8 

14 

4.9 

2.7 

3.4 

31 

6 

10 

16 

4.9 

3.4 

3.8 

32 

5 

2 

7 

4.0 

0.7 

1.7 

33 

3 

5 

8 

2.4 

1.7 

1.9 

34 

5 

9 

14 

4.0 

3.1 

3.4 

35 

4 

3 

7 

3.2 

1.0 

1.7 

36-40 

13 

22 

35 

10.6 

7.5 

8.4 

41-45 

15 

11 

26 

12.2 

3.8 

6.3 

46-50 

9 

11 

20 

7.3 

3.8 

4.8 

51-55 

9 

5 

14 

7.3 

1.7 

3.4 

56-60 

3 

2 

5 

2.4 

0.7 

1.2 

61  and  above 

2 

1 

3 

1.6 

0.3 

0.7 

Not  reported.  . .  . 

1 

1 

0.3 

0.2 

Median  age .  .  . 

33.5 

26.2 

27.8 

First  quartile.  . 

28.5 

23.8 

24.5 

Third  quartile 

43.4 

31.3 

35.9 

Age 

Per 

cent 

25  or 

under 

6 
48 

C6- 

■30 

33 
24 

31 

-35 

19 

10 

36 

-40 

11 
7 

41 

-45 

12 
4 

over  50 


Principals      ■■ 
Teachers  |        | 

Diagram  10. — Age  of  rural  high  school  teaching  staff 

9i 


large  proportion  of  the  teaching  staff  of  the  rural  high  school  is 

young  and  immature  as  compared  with  the  teachers  in  other  types 

of  schools.     (Table  36.) 

Sex 

Approximately  70  percent  of  the  teaching  staff  in  the  New  York 
rural  high  schools  are  women  and  30  percent  are  men.1  Of  the 
principals,  81  per  cent  are  men  and  19  percent  are  women.  Ex- 
clusive of  principals,  91  percent  of  the  teachers  are  women.  Con- 
sidering the  rural  high  school  staff  as  a  whole,  the  number  of  men  is 
four  less  for  each  one  hundred  teachers  than  it  was  for  village  and 
rural  high  schools  of  the  United  States  in  1917-18,  as  reported  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  or  than  it  was  for  25  city  high 
schools  in  New  York  State  in  1920-21. 

Table  37. — Sex  of  Teaching  Staff 


Sex 

Male 

Female 

Percent 
male 

Percent 
female 

Principals 

Teachers 

100 
26 

23 

267 

81.3 
8.9 

18.7 
91.1 

Total 

12(> 

290 

30.3 

69.7 

Married  or  Single 
Approximately  65  percent  of  the  principals  are  married  and  35 
percent  single.     Eleven  percent  of  the  teachers  are  married  and  89 
percent  unmarried.    Of  the  teaching  staff  as  a  whole,  approximately 
27  percent  are  married  and  73  percent  unmarried. 
Table  38. — Number  and  Percent  of  Teaching  Staff  Married  or  Single 


Married 

Single 

Not 
reported 

Percent 
married 

Percent 
single 

Percent 

not 
reported 

Principals 

Teachers 

79 

33 

43 
259 

1 
1 

64.2 
11.3 

34.9 

88.4 

0.8 
0.3 

Total 

112 

302 

2 

26.9 

72.6 

0.4 

Early  Environment 

From  the  standpoint  of  an  understanding  of  the  rural  high  school 

and  its  problems  the  early  environment  of  the  principal  or  teacher 

1  This  shows  a  larger  proportion  of  men  by  approximately  three  percent  than 
is  shown  by  the  reports  of  405  principals  of  rural  high  schools  as  to  number  and 
sex  of  the  high  school  staff  in  their  schools  in  1920-21. 

92 


is  undoubtedly  a  factor  to  be  considered.  Teachers  with  a  back- 
ground of  rural  experience  should  be  better  acquainted  with  rural 
life,  its  educational  resources,  and  its  problems  and  as  a  result  be 
better  able  to  relate  the  school  work  to  the  lives  of  the  pupils  and  to 
the  community.  Of  the  rural  high  school  principals,  over  55  per- 
cent were  born  and  spent  their  early  life  in  the  open  country.  A 
fraction  over  33  percent  were  born  in  a  village,  and  between  10  and 
1 1  percent  in  the  city.  Of  the  teachers,  25.6  percent  were  born  and 
spent  their  early  life  in  the  open  country;  almost  46  percent  were 
born  in  a  village;  and  28.6  percent  in  the  city.  In  the  case  of  both 
principals  and  teachers  a  small  number  of  those  born  in  city  or 
village  spent  their  early  life  in  the  open  country.  Taking  the 
teaching  staff  as  a  whole,  the  facts  at  hand  indicate  that  approxi- 
mately 35  percent  come  from  the  open  country,  42  percent  from 
villages,  and  23  percent  from  cities.  The  data  show  also  that  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  those  holding  principalship  positions, 
generally  men,  come  from  the  open  country  than  of  the  assistants, 
of  whom  91  percent  are  women.  The  majority  of  the  men  in  the 
rural  high  schools  are  recruited  from  the  open  country  while  the 
villages  furnish  the  largest  proportion  of  women. 


Table  39  — 

Early  Environment 

3F  the  Teaching  Staff 

Born  in 

Born  in 

city; 

village; 

City 

early  life 
spent  in 

open 
country 

Village 

early  life 
spent  in 

open 
country 

Open 
country 

Not 
given 

No. 

Per- 
cent 

No. 

Per- 
cent 

No. 

Per- 
cent 

No. 

Per- 
cent 

No. 

Per- 
cent 

No. 

Per- 
cent 

Principals 

12 

10.5 

1 

0.8 

37 

33.3 

4 

3.2 

68 

55.3 

1 

0.8 

Teachers. . 

80 

28.6 

4 

1.7 

124 

45.7 

10 

3.4 

75 

25  6 

Total... 

92 

23.3 

5 

1.2 

161 

42.1 

14 

3.3 

143 

34.4 

1 

0.2 

93 


Place  of  Birth 
A  very  large  proportion  of  the  rural  high  school  teaching  staff  is 
native  to  the  State.  The  data  show  that  approximately  84  percent 
of  the  principals  and  82  percent  of  the  teachers  were  born  in  New 
York  State.  Of  the  principals,  a  fraction  less  than  15  percent,  and  of 
the  teachers  approximately  17  percent,  16  percent  for  both,  were 
born  in  other  states.  Less  than  one  and  a  half  (1.4)  percent  of  the 
rural  high  school  staff  were  foreign  born. 


Table  40. — Place  of  Birth  of  Rural  High  School  Instructors 


Place  of  birth 

Principals 

Teachers 

Total 

New  York 

103 
10 

2 
2 

3 

1 
2 

240 
12 
10 

8 
2 
2 

2 

2 

11 

4 

343 

Pennsylvania 

22 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

12 
10 

New  Hampshire 

2 

Connecticut 

2 

New  Jersey 

3 

Kansas 

2 

Minnesota 

2 

Other  States 

12 

Foreign  countries 

6 

Percent  born  in  New  York 

83.7 

14.6 

1.6 

81.9 

16.7 

1.3 

82.5 

Percent  born  in  other  States 

Percent  born  in  foreign  countries .  .  . 

16.1 
1.4 

Foreign  countries, 
1.4*  \ 


Diagram  11. — Place  of  birth  of  principals  and  teachers 
94 


<D  "O 

—     <U 

J?    O 

55  a 

<-■    C    t^ 

^.2-S 

Tt<  O 

00 

CN 

Ogc 

U73 

d  •-< 

t 

d 

to  43 

Tf  CO 

t^ 

u 

CL, 

wa 

CN  rH 

^ 

■!<  c 

■>*  t"» 

<o 

o  s 

cn  cn 

CN 

43 

CN  Tf 

VO 

"B 

co  cn 

CN 

oj  c 

vO  t^- 

»^- 

d    cd 

00  00 

00 

O0  00 

00 

<u  "O 

-    <U 

o  o 

fc  ci- 

lier 
ion- 
ties 

<r>  o\ 

CN 

O  §13 

43 

cs 

2  « 

C    cd 
cd  U3 

U73 

<H  lO 

*0 

a 

M-C 

c 

C    <2 

"0  •>* 

t^ 

o 

W- 

£ 

<o  oo 

*— ' 

rt 

o  s 

43 

-tfl  r-. 

'B 

1-1 

U  c 

o  o 

Os 

3  J 

o  o 

o 

*-<  CN 

CO 

t« 

"X3    '•" 

—  0> 

cS 

"g-5 

O 

.5    eS 

H 

ChH 

—  a> 

-f  -* 

<* 

O    o 

CN  CN 

CN 

£  a. 

I-     C     « 

III 

00  -f 

o\ 

m 

or« 

O  CN 

i  s 

vO  © 

CN 

00 

(JTJ 

*— c   <^1 

1   ' 

c 

u 

u 

PL, 

bC  43 

■*© 

•* 

CN  »-H 

^ 

A  g 

00  "* 

ON 

o  e 

O  CN 

*^ 

43 

OO 

CO 

h-l 

•*  <o 

CO 

00  t^. 

t^ 

E  8 

t--  t~» 

t^ 

00  00 

00 

i>  "O 

oS 

CO  t~» 

o 

fc  a 

ther 
tion- 
ities 

U 

43 

»—i  r~- 

00 

og-3 

O 

a 

a  S 

*+-( 

gjS 

CN  f»5 

iO 

o 

(JT3 

>, 

M43 

C 

C.J2 

ro  <0 

o 

O 

w- 

ed 

£ 

A  5 

<U     TO 

3 

a  6 

43 

c/] 

iO  0\ 

Tf> 

a)  c 

00  J^- 

iO 

<  — 

O  'O 

vO 

<fh  CN 

rO 

tn 

cd   t_ 

a.  11 

ed 

'o-5 

0 

H 

feH 

95 


Nationality 

With  respect  to  nationality,  the  teachers  in  rural  high  schools  are 
predominantly  of  American  stock.  Approximately  86  percent  of 
the  principals  and  teachers  have  parents  both  of  American  birth. 
In  88.7  percent  of  the  cases  the  father  was  born  in  the  United  States 
and  the  mother  in  87.7  percent.     (See  Table  41.) 


Occupational  Groups  Furnishing  the  Rural  High  School 

Teachers 

With  regard  to  the  occupations  of  the  father  practically  97  per- 
cent of  the  principals  and  86  percent  of  the  teachers  gave  the  de- 
sired information.  Of  the  principals  reporting,  56.3  percent  gave 
farming  as  the  occupation  of  the  father;  14.3  percent  gave  business; 
and  15.1  percent  gave  various  callings  of  the  artisan  type.  In  7.6 
percent  of  the  cases  the  father  followed  one  of  the  professions, 
in  five  percent  his  work  was  under  the  civil  service,  and  in  1.7  percent 
he  was  a  laborer. 

Of  the  teachers  reporting,  38.2  percent  gave  farming  as  the  father's 
occupation;  29.9  percent  gave  business;  and  16.7  gave  callings  of 
the  artisan  type.  The  father  followed  a  profession  in  the  case  of 
11.6  percent  of  the  teachers  reporting.  In  2.4  percent  of  the  cases 
he  was  a  laborer  and  in  1 .2  percent  he  was  working  under  the  civil 
service.  The  data  indicate  that  the  teaching  staff  of  the  rural  high 
school  is  recruited  largely  from  the  four  general  occupational  groups 

Table  42. — Occupation  of  the  Father 


Occupation 

Farm- 
ing 

Busi- 
ness 

Artisan 
trade 

Profes- 
sion 

Civil 
ser- 
vice 

Laborer 

Not  re- 
ported 

Principals 

Teachers 

67 
96 

17 

75 

18 

42 

9 
29 

6 
3 

2 
6 

4 

42 

Total 

Percent    princi- 
pals1   

Percent  teachers 

163 

56.3 
38.2 

92 

14.3 

2«,o 

60 

15.1 
16.7 

38 

7.6 
11.6 

9 

5.0 
1.2 

8 

1.7 
2.4 

46 

3.2 
14.3 

Percent  total . 

44.1 

24.9 

10.2 

10.2 

2.4 

2.2 

11.0 

1  The  percentages  in  Table  42  are  computed  on  the  basis  of  the  number  re- 
porting, and  in  Diagram  12  on  the  basis  of  total  number  studied. 

06 


Labor  2#    ^    Not 
Civil     i/\  Indicated 

11?! 


Diagram  12. — Occupations  of  fathers  of  principals  and  teachers 

engaged  in  farming,  business,  work  of  the  artisan  type,  and  the 
professions. 

Parental  Income 

To  the  question  as  to  parental  income,  approximately  58  percent 

of  the  principals  and  teachers  gave  a  definite  answer.     Many  others 

reported  it  impossible  to  make  an  accurate  estimate.    While  the 

proportion  of  teachers  supplying  data  with  regard  to  this  item  is 


Table  43. — Annum 

Parental  Income 

Annual  income 

Principals 

Teachers 

Total 

Percent  of 
total 

Living 

3 

11 

14 

5.91 

$500  or  less 

16 

13 

29 

12.1 

501-750 

11 

11 

22 

9.2 

751-1,000 

15 

23 

38 

15.9 

1,001-1,250 

21 

27 

48 

20.0 

1,251-1,500 

4 

1 

5 

2.1 

1,501-1,750 

1 

1 

2 

0.8 

1,751-2,000 

11 

44 

55 

23.0 

2,001-2,500 

1 

1 

0.4 

2,501-3,000 

6 

9 

15 

6.3 

3,001-4,000 

1 

1 

0.4 

4,001-5,000 

1 

2 

3 

1.3 

5,001  or  over 

1 

5 

6 

2.5 

Number  reporting 

91 

148 

239 

57.5 

Number  not  reporting.  . 

32 

145 

177 

42.5 

Approximate  median . .  . 

$1,000 

$1,140 

$1,100 

1  The  percentages  are  computed  on  the  basis  of  the  number  reporting. 
7  97 


~ 


X     C 


P    X) 


wU 


O    X 

'/>    £ 

PP 


XJ   A 

*~  S  ° 

r'".  C 

2  33 

lO  w 

H  cr 

^  J3  u 

O   Tj 

\r 

Kg.* 

c*3  c> 

cn 

<4<  cr 

to 

TJ 

+J          <u 

gas 

•  <v 

cn       © 

a 

o 

(■«. 

rs  \r 

W       — < 

o 

H  n£ 

r-»        ^* 

<n  nc 

On        cn 

o 

t^. 

00  c<" 

■— 

I/-) 

cn 

o 

o 

oo  i» 

ir 

o 

cn 

vO 

ro  t-> 

C 

On 

t-<  tN 

-t 

lO 

•* 

0*  rt 

cr 

l-~ 

CM  ^ 

t> 

"H 

-o 

<r> 

00  \C 

Tt 

cn 

CN  vC 

o 

CM 

o 

est 

t>~  «- 

0C 

00 

»H  sC 

1- 

"* 

•H 

■t  VC 

c 

-f 

»H  Tt 

NC 

c 

<u 

>-. 

rt 

13 

O 

2 

*-" 

<_> 

o 

t/) 

a  t- 
D.  a. 
•n  -c 

2 

c 

E 

3 

.5  rt 

c 

OJ 

Ph 

£ 

0- 

~ 

"^  S3  "° 

o  c 

r-- 

f-  3"-3 

CN  CN 

c-h  cr 

c/3  ~  <u 

CN  00                On 

Kg.* 

—  o          o 

i§ 

On  lO                  i-~ 

^^ 

X) 

oi« 

On 

a;  *  o 

t*  *r> 

a 

CN 

r-» 

•  »-l 

On 

vO 

-h  ro                   "*          © 

*-t 

<u 

£3 
p 

'O 

cn  t^ 

ON          CN 

pq 

o 

*H 

NO 

4J 

Tf 

cc  — 

ON          t 

b 

a; 

lO 

■^ 

co 

00  C 

00          rH 

*— ' 

Y-C     (V 

^          —< 

»o 

CN 

r-  c 

t^ 

00 

rs)  ir 

1^ 

00 

^ 

C*3    CN 

"■ 

-+ 

rf  C 

"^ 

CO 

r~i 

o 

rs  oc 

8 

o 

CN 

X 

o 

O 

X! 

<*- 

^_, 

o 

o 

C/3 

+J 

<u 

XI 

T,  X 

^5 

c 
8 

c 

3 

.£    ec 

c 

HI 
Ph 

£ 

Ph 

H 

98 


Third 

quar- 

tile 

<^J 

CN 

First 

quar- 

tile 

NO  NO 

d  d 

no 
d 

is 

^^5 

LO    TT 

-t 

Not 

re- 
ported 

«H  "0 

o 

r-- 

;- 

CM 

•h      d 

O 

Tf  CN 

lO 

cs  t>- 

tN 

On      t>i 

-t 

f*5  NO 

On         "* 

c*3 

<^  NO 

q 

On         t-^ 

cni 

00 

o      vd 

~ 

o  o\ 

<~0  00 

119 
28.6 

O 

159 

38.2 

en 

QJ 

'35 

*s 

hi 

o 

-O 

a 

3 

■r 

- 

'C 
s 

p. 

if 
EC 

c 

13 

o 

d 
S 

1 

on 

OJ 

o 

-a 

c 
o 
<J 
o 
CO 

NO  t*5 

On 

ON 

00 

<u 

_c 

C 

IS 
IE 
U 

in 

V 

3 

2 
IS 

CJ 

u 

o 

147 
35.3 

c 
o 
(J 

OJ 

o 

/. 

— 
O 
<u 

ja 

H 

9 

ft 
J 

£ 

0- 

-  * 

CI 

0 

C 

0 

c 

"c 

c 
a 

c 
>- 

4, 

0- 

99 


comparatively  small,  it  is  good  considering  the  difficulties  involved 
and  the  percentage  of  replies  given  to  this  item  in  similar  studies 
that  have  been  made.  The  data  given  indicate  that  the  median 
annual  income  of  the  families  from  which  the  rural  high  school 
teachers  come  was  at  the  time  they  began  teaching  approximately 
$1100,  while  one-fourth  come  from  families  having  an  income  of 
approximately  $1900  or  more.  In  only  10  percent  of  the  cases  re- 
porting was  the  estimated  annual  income  more  than  $2500.  In 
general  it  would  seem  that  the  rural  high  school  teacher  comes  from 
a  family  of  moderate  financial  circumstances. 

Size  of  Family 
In  general  the  members  of  the  rural  high  school  teaching  staff 
come  from  families  of  more  than  average  size,  as  shown  by  the  sta- 
tistics either  for  New  York  State  or  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole. 
The  median  number  of  children  for  each  family  is  approximately 
four  (3.7).  In  one-fourth  of  the  families  there  are  fewer  than  three 
children  and  in  one-fourth  five  or  more.  In  14.4  percent  of  the 
cases  or  in  one  case  in  7  the  teacher  reporting  is  the  only  child  "in 
the  family,"  in  35.3  percent  he  is  the  oldest  child,  and  in  23.8  per- 
cent the  second  oldest.     (See  Table  44.) 

Academic  and  Professional  Training 
As  to  academic  training,  56.9  percent  of  the  123  principals  are 
college  graduates.  In  addition  to  a  college  course  5.7  percent 
have  devoted  from  one  to  three  years  to  graduate  work.  Almost 
1 1  percent  have  given  from  one  to  four  years  to  college  preparation. 
Excluding  those  who  have  also  done  some  college  work,  17.9  percent 
are  graduates  of  normal  schools,  and  an  additional  3.2  percent 
have  taken  one  or  two  years  of  normal  school  training.  With 
graduation  from  high  school  or  high  school  plus  one  year  in  a  high 
school  training  class  as  their  maximum  amount  of  regular  academic 
training,  there  are  10.5  percent  of  the  principals.  Approximately 
one  percent  have  had  less  regular  academic  training  than  a  four 
year  high  school  course. 

The  proportion  of  teachers  having  college  degrees  is  somewhat 
higher  than  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  principals.    Of  the  293  teachers 


reporting,  64.2  percent  are  college  graduates.1  One  and  three- tenths 
percent  have  done  one  year  of  graduate  work.  Nearly  nine  percent 
have  completed  from  one  to  four  years  of  college  work.  Excluding 
those  who  have  also  done  some  college  work,  19.1  percent  are  normal 
school  graduates,  and  another  1.7  percent  have  spent  from  one  to 
two  years  in  a  normal  school.  Approximately  six  percent  have  had 
no  regular  academic  training  beyond  that  represented  by  a  four 
year  high  school  course  or  high  school  plus  a  year  in  a  high  school 
training  class. 

Combining  the  data  on  the  academic  training  for  principals  and 
teachers  gives  the  following  results:  Sixty-two  percent  of  the  rural 
high  school  staff  are  college  graduates  and  an  additional  9.3  percent 
have  had  one  or  more  years  of  college  training.  Excluding  those 
who  have  also  had  some  college  work  but  are  not  graduates  of  college, 
18.8  percent  are  normal  school  graduates  and  an  additional  2.1  per- 
cent have  given  one  or  two  years  to  a  normal  school  training.  The 
remaining  7.7  percent  have  had  high  school  training  or  high  school 
plus  one  year  in  a  high  school  training  class.  (Table  45.)  That  these 
figures  represent  the  status  of  the  rural  high  school  staff  with  respect 
to  academic  training  is  borne  out  by  the  data  from  2,387  rural  high 


Table  45  — 

Academic  and  Professional  Training 

High  school 

school 

College 

work 

V 

.2 

BO 

cti 

0> 

a 

o> 

u 
nl 
V 

(8 
01 

•o 

01 

d 

H 

01 

o> 

Ej 

ca 

V 

>> 

>. 

3 

>> 

TT 

•- 

V 

o 

V 

o 

01 

01 

O 

01 

N 

C 

5 

C 

£ 

.c 

£ 

-C 

H 

o 

H 

o 

H 

O 

O 

H 

H 

to 

o 

O 

H 

H 

Principals 

1 

7 

6 

3 

1 

22 

3 

7 

3 

70 

5 

2 

Teachers 

1 

8 

9 

3 

2 

56 

10 

5 

7 

4 

188 

4 

Total 

2 

15 

15 

6 

3 

78 

13 

12 

10 

4 

258 

9 

2 

Percent  principals 

0.8 

.5.7 

4.8 

2.4 

0.8 

17.9 

2.4 

5.7 

2.4 

56.9 

4.1 

1.6 

Percent  teachers.  . 

0.3 

2.7 

3.1 

1.0 

0.6 

19.1 

3.4 

1.7 

2.4 

1.3 

64.2 

1.3 

Percent  total 

O.S 

3.6 

3.6 

1.4 

0.7 

18.8 

3.1 

2.9 

2.4 

0.9 

62.0 

2.2 

0.5 

1  Principals  and  teachers  having  done  graduate  work  are  also  included  in  the 
number  of  those  who  are  college  graduates. 


school  principals  and  teachers  of  the  State  in  1919-20.  Of  the 
2,387,  63.3  percent  were  college  graduates,  25.8  percent  were  nor- 
mal school  graduates,  and  10.9  percent  were  not  graduates  from 
either  normal  school  or  college.  (Table  45A.)  If  in  the  case  of 
the  416  instructors,  the  basis  of  the  present  study,  the  percentage 
of  normal  graduates  who  have  done  one  or  more  years  of  college 
work,  were  added  to  the  percentage  given  for  normal  graduates, 
the  data  for  the  two  groups  would  agree  closely  throughout. 

Table  45A. — Academic  Training  of  2,387  Rural  High  School  Principals 
and  Teachers  of  the  State  (1919-20) 


Not  graduates 

from  normal 

school  or 

college 

Normal 
school 

graduates 

College 
graduates 

Total 

Number 

Percent 

259 
10.9 

617 
25.8 

1,511 
63.3 

2,3X7 
100.0 

Type  of  Certificate  Held 

Of  the  principals,  54.4  percent  hold  some  form  of  State  certificate 

requiring  as  a  minimum  of  preparation  graduation  from  college. 

The  remaining  2.5  percent  who  are  college  graduates  hold  normal 

or  temporary  certificates.    Twenty-one  and  one-tenth  percent  hold 

Table  46. — Type  of  Certificate  Held 


Type  of  certificate 

Principals 

Teach- 
ers 

Total 

Percent 
princi- 
pals 

Percent 
teach- 
ers 

Percent 
total 

College  graduate .  <, 

Normal  certificate . 
State  certificate1.  .  . 

Special' 

Equivalent 

First  grade 

Training  class 

Temporary 

Rural  renewable.  .  . 
Special  permit 

academic    65 

special          2 

26 

19 

1 

5 
2 
2 

1 

179 

9 

56 

25 
3 

11 
1 

8 

1 

244 

11 

82 

44 

3 

1 

16 

3 

10 

1 

1 

52.8 

1.6 

21.1 

15.4 

0.8 
4.1 
1.6 
1.6 

0.8 

61.1 

3.1 

19.1 

8.5 
1.0 

3.7 
0.3 

2.7 

0.3 

58.9 
2.6 
19.7 
10.6 
0.7 
0.2 
3.8 
0.7 
2.4 
0.2 
0.2 

1  Not  based  upon  graduation  from  college. 
102 


normal  school  certificates;  15.4  percent  hold  State  certificates, 
either  life  or  limited;  5.7  percent  hold  first  grade  or  training  class 
certificates.  The  remaining  3.2  percent  are  teaching  under  equiva- 
lent, temporary,  and  rural  school  renewable  certificates. 

Of  the  teachers,  64.2  percent  hold  a  college  graduate  certificate, 
academic  or  special.  Nineteen  and  one-tenth  percent  teach  under 
normal  school  certificates,  8.5  percent  under  a  State  certificate, 
either  life  or  limited;  approximately  one  percent  hold  a  special 
certificate,  not  based  on  graduation  from  college.  Three  percent 
hold  temporary  certificates  or  special  permits;  and  four  percent 
have  first  grade  or  training  class  certificates. 

Age  at  Which  Instructors  Begin  Teaching 

The  data  from  the  group  studied  indicate  that  one  half  of  the 

principals  of  the  rural  high  schools  begin  teaching  at  21  years  of 

age  or  younger;  one-fourth  at  19  or  younger,  and  one-fourth  at  23 

Table  47. — Age  at  which  Rural  High  School  Instructors  Begin  Teaching 


Age 

Princi- 
pals 

Teach- 
ers 

Total 

Percent 
princi- 
pals 

Percent 
teachers 

Percent 
total 

15 

1 

2 

3 

0.8 

0.7 

0.7 

16 

6 

3 

9 

4.9 

1.0 

2.2 

17 

4 

2 

6 

3.2 

0.7 

1.4 

18 

23 

29 

52 

18.7 

9.9 

12.5 

19 

7 

32 

39 

5.7 

10.9 

9.4 

20 

15 

35 

50 

12.2 

11.9 

12.0 

21 

14 

55 

69 

11.4 

18.8 

16.6 

22 

12 

73 

85 

9.8 

25.0 

20.4 

23 

12 

36 

48 

9.8 

12.3 

11.5 

24 

8 

15 

23 

6.5 

5.1 

5.5 

25 

10 

4 

14 

8.3 

1.4 

3.4 

26 

1 

2 

3 

0.8 

0.7 

0.7 

27 

1 

1 

2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.5 

28 

1 

1 

2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.5 

29 

2 

1 

3 

1.6 

0.3 

0.7 

30 

1 

1 

2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.5 

31-35 

36-40 

1 

1 

0.3 

0.2 

41-45 

i 

1 

0.8 

0.2 

Not  reported 

4 

4 

3.2 

1.0 

Median  age 

21.2 

21.7 

21.6 

First  quartile 

18.8 

20.1 

19.8 

Third  quartile.  . .  . 

23.6 

22.8 

22.9 

I°3 


years  of  age  or  older.  The  median  age  at  which  the  high  school 
instructor  begins  teaching  is  21.7  years.  One-fourth  of  the  in- 
structors begin  teaching  at  20  or  younger  and  one-fourth  at  23  or 
older.  For  the  teaching  staff  as  a  whole,  the  median  age  for  be- 
ginning teaching  is  21.6  years.  One-fourth  begin  teaching  at  the 
age  of  20  or  under  and  one-fourth  at  23  or  over. 

Number  of  Years'  Teaching  Experience 

As  to  teaching  experience,  the  median  principal  has  had  8.6  years. 

One-fourth  of  the  principals  have  had  less  than  five  years'  experience 

and  approximately  one-fourth  have  had  18  years  or  more.    The 

Table  48. — Number  of  Years'  Teaching  Experience 


Number  of  years 

Princi- 
pals 

Teach- 
ers 

Total 

Percent 
princi- 
pals 

Percent 
teachers 

Percent 
total 

1 

11 

74 

85 

8.9 

25.3 

20.4 

2 

6 

42 

48 

4.9 

14.3 

11.5 

3 

5 

31 

36 

4.0 

10.6 

8.6 

4 

7 

25 

32 

5.7 

8.5 

7.7 

5 

13 

20 

33 

10.6 

6.8 

7.9 

6 

6 

17 

23 

4.9 

5.8 

5.5 

7 

11 

11 

22 

8.9 

3.8 

5.3 

8 

2 

7 

9 

1.6 

2.4 

2.2 

9 

4 

6 

10 

3.2 

2.0 

2.4 

10 

4 

4 

8 

3.2 

1.4 

2.0 

11 

6 

4 

10 

4.9 

1.4 

2.4 

12 

4 

3 

7 

3.2 

1.0 

1.7 

13 

2 

2 

4 

1.6 

0.7 

0.9 

14 

2 

5 

7 

1.6 

1.7 

1.7 

15 

1 

4 

5 

0.8 

1.4 

1.2 

16-20 

17 

15 

32 

13.8 

5.1 

7.7 

21-25 

7 

12 

19 

5.7 

4.1 

4.6 

26-30 

7 

9 

16 

5.7 

3.1 

3.8 

31-35 

6 

2 

8 

4.9 

0.7 

2.0 

36  and  over 

2 

2 

1.6 

0.5 

Median1 

8.6 

3.4 

4.7 

First  quartile 

4.6 

1.4 

1.9 

Third  quartile.  . .  . 

17.9 

7.5 

11.1 

1  From  the  fact  that  the  data  were  gathered  at  the  close  of  the  school  year 
and  that  the  teachers  quite  generally  reported  the  year  just  being  completed  as 
one  year's  experience,  and  also  from  the  fact  that  anything  over  a  half-year  was 
counted  as  a  year,  the  median  was  computed  from  the  mid-point  between  years. 


104 


median  teacher  has  had  3.4  years  of  teaching  experience,  one-fourth 
have  had  less  than  a  year  and  a  half,  and  one-fourth  have  taught 
more  than  seven  years.  For  both  principals  and  teachers  the  me- 
dian teaching  experience  is  4.7  years,  with  one-fourth  having  had  two 
years  or  less  and  one-fourth  eleven  years  or  more.  Forty-eight 
percent  have  taught  less  than  five  years  as  compared  with  42.5  per- 
cent for  the  teachers  in  high  schools  accredited  by  the  North  Central 
Association  of  colleges  and  secondary  schools.  The  most  noticeable 
facts  about  the  principals  and  teachers  of  the  New  York  rural  high 
schools  from  the  standpoint  of  experience  are:  (1)  The  wide  range 
in  number  of  years  running  from  less  than  one  year  to  41  years; 
and  (2)  the  fact  that  one-half  have  had  less  than  five  years  of  ex- 
perience, while  one-fourth  have  taught  two  years  or  less.  These 
facts  as  to  the  large  number  of  young,  inexperienced  principals  and 
teachers  in  the  small  rural  high  schools,  combined  with  other  facts 
gathered  from  the  actual  visitation  of  over  70  rural  high  schools, 
indicate  among  other  things  that  the  rural  high  schools  furnish 
apprenticeship  teaching  for  the  larger  high  schools  of  the  State. 

Number  of  Years  in  Present  Position 
An  important  factor  in  the  work  of  a  school  is  the  permanency  of 
its  teaching  personnel.  A  large  proportion  of  new  teachers  each 
year  is  undesirable  even  though  they  are  teachers  of  experience. 
The  data  collected  from  the  group  forming  the  basis  of  this  study,  as 
well  as  the  impression  gained  from  the  visitation  of  rural  high  schools, 
indicate  that  instructors  remain  as  a  general  thing  but  a  year  or  two 
in  the  same  school.  Over  31  percent1  of  the  principals  and  49 
percent  of  the  teachers,  or  44  percent  for  both,  were  teaching  their 
first  year  in  the  particular  high  school  where  they  were  at  the  time 
of  making  the  report.  Over  19  percent  of  the  principals  and  prac- 
tically 26  percent  of  the  teachers,  or  24  percent  for  both,  were  teach- 
ing their  second  year  in  the  same  school.  Over  89  percent  of  the 
high  school  staff  had  been  in  their  present  positions  five  years  or  less, 
while  79  percent  had  been  in  their  present  positions  three  years  or 

1  Approximately  33  percent  of  the  principals  of  the  rural  high  schools  were 
serving  their  first  year  in  their  position  in  1921-22,  as  shown  by  comparing  the 
1920  and  the  1921  Directories  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

105 


less.  These  figures  agree  very  closely  with  the  facts  found  with 
regard  to  tenure  of  all  secondary  school  teachers  in  Livingston 
County,  where  55  percent  were  teaching  their  first  year  in  the 
school.1 

Table  49. — Number  of  Years  in  Present  Position 


Number  of  years 

Princi- 
pals 

Teach- 
ers 

Total 

Percent 
princi- 
pals 

Percent 
teachers 

Percent 
total 

1 

39 

144 

183 

31.7 

49.1 

44.0 

2 

24 

76 

100 

19.5 

25.9 

24.0 

3 

19 

27 

46 

15.4 

9.2 

11.1 

4 

15 

10 

25 

12.9 

3.4 

6.0 

5 

10 

5 

15 

8.1 

1.7 

3.6 

6 

3 

9 

4.9 

1.0 

2.2 

7 

7 

10 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

8 

1 

2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.5 

9 

3 

3 

1.0 

0.8 

10 

3 

4 

0.8 

1.0 

0.9 

11 

1 

0.8 

0.2 

12 

2 

3 

0.8 

0.7 

0.8 

13 

2 

2 

0.7 

0.5 

14 

1 

0.8 

0.2 

15 

16-20 

4 

5 

0.8 

1.3 

1.2 

21-25 

3 

4 

0.8 

1.0 

0.9 

26-30 

1 

1 

0.3 

0.2 

Not  reported 

2 

2 

0.7 

0.5 

Number  of  Months  Employed 
The  teaching  corps  of  the  rural  high  school  are  commonly  em- 
ployed for  ten  months,  95  percent  (94.7)  teaching  on  that  basis. 
Less  than  three  percent  of  those  reporting  (2.6)  were  employed  the 
full  twelve  months,  these  being  in  nearly  every  instance  principals 
and  teachers  giving  instruction  in  vocational  agriculture.  Almost 
three  percent  (2.7)  were  employed  for  less  than  10  months  of  the 

year. 

Table  50. — Number  of  Months  Employed 


Number  of  months.  .  . 

9 

9.5 

10 

11 

12 

Principals 

Teachers 

9 

2 

120 
274 

3 
8 

Total 

Percent  of  total 

9 
2.2 

2 
0.5 

394 
94.7 

11 

2.6 

1  Livingston  County  Survey,  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Bulletin 
738,  p.  91. 

106 


Teaching  experience 


1     2     3     4     5     6     7     8     9    10  11   12   13   14    15     16-20  Over 
Years  21 


Number  of  years  in  present  position 


X3 Q 


1     2     3     4     5     6     7     8     9    10   11    12  13  14   15      16-20  Over 
Years  21 

Diagram  13. — Teaching  experience  and  number  of  years  in  present  position  of 
rural  high  school  teachers 


107 


Salary 

The  data  from  the  123  principals  reporting  indicate  that  the 
salaries  for  rural  high  school  principals  for  1920-21  ranged  from 
$900  to  $3200.  The  median  salary  was  approximately  $1750, 
while  one-fourth  of  the  principals  received  $1500  or  less  and  one- 
fourth  $2040  or  more.  For  teachers  the  range  was  from  $750  to 
$2500.  One-half  of  the  teachers  received  a  salary  of  less  than  $1225 ; 
one-fourth  received  less  than  $1120  and  one-fourth  over  $1335. 

A  comparison  of  these  figures  with  the  1919-20  salaries  of  1784 
rural  high  school  teachers  and  603  rural  high  school  principals  of 
the  State  shows  an  increase  in  1920-21  over  1919-20  of  $287.40  in 
the  median  salary  of  teachers  and  of  $207 .30  in  the  median  salary  of 
principals.    These  facts  would  seem  to  indicate  that  teachers  re- 


Table  51. 


-Salaries  of  416  Rural  High  School  Principals  and  Teachers 
in  1920-21 


Amount 

Number 

of 
principals 

Number 

of 
teachers 

Amount 

Number 

of 
principals 

Number 

of 
teachers 

received 

received 

$750-  $799 

1 

$2,000-2,049 

12 

2 

800-   849 

1 

2,050-2,099 

850-   899 

2,100-2,149 

4 

1 

900-   949 

3 

"l 

2,150-2,199 

950-    999 

1 

2,200-2,249 

6 

1 

1,000-1,049 

4 

34 

2,250-2,299 

1 

1,050-1,099 

1 

14 

2,300-2,349 

1 

1,100-1,149 

43 

2,350-2,399 

1,150-1,199 

1 

11 

2,400-2,449 

1 

1,200-1,249 

4 

76 

2,450-2,499 

1,250-1,299 

2 

9 

2,500-2,599 

5 

1 

1,300-1,349 

2 

32 

2,600-2,699 

3 

1,350-1,399 

1 

5 

2,700-2,799 

1 

1,400-1,449 

8 

17 

2,800-2,899 

2 

1,450-1,499 

4 

3,000-3,099 

4 

1,500-1,549 

22 

12 

3,100-3,199 

1,550-1,599 

2 

3,200-3,299 

1 

1,600-1,649 

3 
2 

8 
1 

1,650-1,699 

1,700-1,749 

9 

1 

Total 

123 

293 

1,750-1,799 

2 

4 

1,800-1,849 

12 

3 

Median 

$1,746.20 

$1,221.70 

1,850-1,899 

2 

First  quartilc 

1,509.80 

1,116.73 

1,900-1,949 

4 

1 

Third  quartile 

2,037.54 

1,334.54 

1,950-1,999 

1 

108 


Table  52.- 


-Salaries  of  2,387  Rural  High  School  Principals  and  Teachers 
in  1919-20 


Amount 
received 

Number 

of 
principals 

Number 

of 
teachers 

Amount 
received 

Number 

of 
principals 

Number 

of 
teachers 

$600-  $649 

12 

$1,950-1,999 

2 

650-    699 

11 

2,000-2,049 

26 

2 

700-    749 

51 

2,050-2,099 

2 

750-    799 

79 

2,100-2,149 

12 

2 

800-   849 

3 

220 

2,150-2,199 

2 

850-   899 

2 

247 

2,200-2,249 

18 

900-   949 

6 

385 

2,250-2,299 

5 

950-   999 

7 

175 

2,300-2,349 

7 

1 

1,000-1,049 

20 

232 

2,350-2,399 

1 

1,050-1,099 

9 

72 

2,400-2,449 

2 

1,100-1,149 

38 

83 

2,450-2,499 

1 

1,150-1,199 

IS 

21 

2,500-2,549 

7 

1,200-1,249 

43 

45 

2,550-2,599 

2 

1,250-1,299 

17 

19 

2,600-2,649 

8 

1,300-1,349 

45 

33 

2,650-2,699 

1,350-1,399 

13 

7 

2,700-2,749 

1,400-1,449 

39 

15 

2,750-2,799 

i 

1,450-1,499 

4 

6 

2,800-2,899 

2 

1,500-1,549 

51 

21 

2,900-2,999 

3 

1,550-1,599 

5 

6 

3,000  andover 

11 

1,600-1,649 

58 
7 

8 
4 

1,650-1,699 

1,700-1,749 

39 

10 

Total 

603 

1,784 

1,750-1,799 

10 

2 

1,800-1,849 

37 

10 

Median 

$1,538.71 

$934.32 

1,850-1,899 

4 

1 

First  quartile 

1,271.80 

863.77 

1,900-1,949 

20 

2 

Third  quartile 

1,827.72 

1,033.05 

ceived  in  1920-21  salary  increases  over  1919-20  to  an  amount  ap- 
proximately equal  to  the  $300  per  teacher  from  State  funds  under  the 
provisions  of  the  Lockwood-Donahue  act.  In  the  case  of  principals 
the  increase  seems  to  have  been  to  the  extent  of  approximately  two- 
thirds  of  the  $300  available  from  the  special  State  fund. 

Economic  Status 
The  data  indicate  that  more  than  one-half  of  the  rural  high  school 
teaching  staff  have  no  source  of  income  beyond  their  salaries  re- 
ceived as  principals  and  teachers.  In  round  numbers,  53  percent  of 
the  principals  reported  that  they  received  no  money  from  any  other 
source.    Practically  69  percent  of  the  teachers  reported  no  money 

109 


from  any  other  source.  Combining  the  data  for  principals  and 
teachers  shows  that  over  88  percent  of  the  staff  received  $100  or  less 
from  sources  other  than  salary  in  1920-21. 

Table  53. — The  Amount  of  Money  Derived  from  Other  Sources  During 
the  Year  (Interest  Received,  Income  from  Other  Investments,  etc.) 


Amount  received 

Princi- 

Teach- 

Total 

Percent 
of 

Percent 
of 

Percent 
of 

pals 

ers 

princi- 
pals 

teachers 

total 

Nothing 

65 

201 

266 

52.8 

68.6 

63.9 

$1-    $25 

8 

33 

41 

6.5 

11.3 

9.8 

26-     50 

18 

10 

28 

14.6 

3.4 

6.7 

51-     75 

2 

7 

9 

1.6 

2.4 

2.2 

76-    100 

4 

21 

25 

3.2 

7.1 

6.0 

101-    150 

4 

1 

5 

3.2 

0.3 

1.2 

151-    200 

5 

6 

11 

4.1 

2.0 

2.6 

201-   300 

6 

4 

10 

4.8 

1.4 

2.4 

301-   400 

1 

1 

0.3 

0.2 

401-    500 

3 

1 

4 

2.4 

0.3 

0.9 

501-    700 

4 

5 

9 

3.2 

1.7 

2.1 

701-1,000 

1 

1 

0.3 

0.2 

1,001  or  over 

2 

2 

0.7 

0.5 

Not  reported . .  . 

4 

4 

3.2 

1.0 

Table  54.- 


•Approximate  Amount  of  Money  Earned  Outside  Regular 
Teaching  Salary  During  the  Year 


Amount  earned 

Princi- 

Teach- 

Total 

Percent 
of 

Percent 
of 

Percent 
of 

pals 

ers 

princi- 
pals 

teachers 

total 

Nothing 

63 

205 

268 

51.2 

69.9 

64.4 

$l-$25 

6 

9 

15 

4.9 

3.1 

3.6 

26-  50 

2 

29 

31 

1.6 

9.9 

7.4 

51-  75 

4 

1 

5 

3.2 

0.3 

1.2 

76-100 

11 

18 

29 

8.0 

6.1 

7.0 

101-125 

8 

1 

9 

6.5 

0.3 

2.2 

126-150 

4 

4 

1.4 

1.0 

151-175 

1 

1 

O.S 

0.2 

176-200 

9 

7 

15 

7.3 

2.4 

3.6 

201-250 

2 

2 

0.7 

0.5 

251-300 

10 

6 

16 

8.1 

2.0 

3.8 

301-400 

3 

4 

7 

2.4 

1.4 

1.7 

401-500 

1 

3 

4 

0.8 

1.0 

1.0 

Over  500 

4 

2 

6 

3.2 

0.7 

1.4 

Not  reported 

1 

3 

4 

0.8 

1.0 

1.0 

The  larger  proportion  of  the  staff  reported  no  money  earned 
from  other  sources  in  addition  to  their  salaries  as  principals  and 
teachers.  Over  51  percent  of  the  principals  and  70  percent  of  the 
teachers  reported  no  additional  earnings.  For  both  principals  and 
teachers  approximately  84  percent  earned  $100  or  less  outside  the 
regular  teaching  salary.     (Table  54.) 

One  factor  determining  the  attractiveness  and  appeal  of  a  calling 
as  a  permanent  life-work  is  its  possibility  of  an  annual  saving.  In 
New  York  the  system  of  teacher 's  pensions  in  part  answers  this  re- 
quirement. If  a  calling  is  to  attract  the  best  type  of  individual, 
however,  it  would  seem  that  a  system  of  pensions  should  be  regarded 
as  supplementary  and  that  in  addition  the  financial  returns  should 
be  sufficient  to  make  possible  the  gradual  accumulation  of  a  personal 
reserve.  The  figures  as  to  savings  of  rural  high  school  principals 
and  teachers  indicate  that  at  present  such  opportunities  are  in- 
sufficient to  attract  and  hold  the  type  of  person  most  needed  in 
rural  high  school  work. 

Almost  40  percent  of  the  principals  reported  no  savings  beyond 


Table  55. — Amount  Saved  During  the  Year  in  Addition  to  Life  Insurance 

and  Pension 


Amount  saved 

Princi- 

Teach- 

Total 

Percent 
of 

Percent 
of 

Percent 
of 

pals 

ers 

princi- 
pals 

teachers 

total 

Nothing 

49 

130 

179 

39.8 

44.4 

43.0 

$1-    $50 

2 

6 

8 

1.6 

2.0 

1.9 

51-    100 

5 

27 

32 

4.1 

9.2 

7.7 

101-    150 

11 

4 

15 

8.9 

1.4 

3.6 

151-    200 

5 

45 

50 

4.1 

15.3 

12.0 

201-    250 

9 

9 

3.1 

2.2 

251-    300 

5 

7 

12 

4.1 

2.4 

2.9 

301-   350 

1 

4 

5 

0.8 

1.4 

1.2 

351-   400 

11 

44 

55 

8.9 

15.0 

13.2 

401-    500 

14 

9 

23 

11.4 

3.1 

5.5 

501-    600 

2 

1 

3 

1.6 

0.3 

0.7 

601-    700 

6 

3 

9 

4.8 

1.0 

2.2 

701-   800 

4 

2 

6 

3.2 

0.7 

1.4 

801-   900 

1 

1 

0.8 

0.2 

901-1,000 

3 

1 

4 

2.4 

0.3 

1.0 

Over  1,000 

3 

3 

2.4 

0.7 

Not  reported 

1 

1 

2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.5 

pension  and  life  insurance.  Of  the  teachers,  44  percent  reported 
no  other  savings.  For  the  teaching  staff  as  a  whole  43  percent  re- 
ported no  other  savings.  Over  52  percent  reported  savings  for  the 
year  of  $100  or  less  and  25  percent  saved  $350  or  more. 

Exclusive  of  pensions,  30  percent  of  the  principals  and  69  percent 
of  the  teachers,  or  practically  58  percent  for  both,  reported  no  life 
insurance.  Less  than  13  percent  of  the  teaching  staff  paid  insur- 
ance premiums  during  the  year  in  excess  of  $100. 

Table  56. — Amount  Paid  for  Life  Insurance  Exclusive  of  Pension 


Amount  paid 

Princi- 
pals 

Teach- 

Total 

Percent 
of 

Percent 
of 

Percent 
of 

ers 

princi- 
pals 

teachers 

total 

Nothing 

37 

203 

240 

30.1 

69.3 

57.7 

$l-$25 

9 

9 

18 

7.3 

3.1 

4.3 

26-  50 

12 

32 

44 

9.7 

10.9 

10.6 

51-  75 

17 

12 

29 

13.8 

4.1 

7.0 

76-100 

4 

3 

7 

3.2 

1.0 

1.7 

101-125 

12 

2 

14 

9.7 

0.7 

3.4 

126-150 

16 

16 

13.0 

3.8 

151-175 

10 

10 

3.4 

2.4 

176-200 

1 

1 

2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.5 

201-250 

2 

2 

1.6 

0.5 

251-300 

4 

1 

5 

3.2 

0.3 

1.2 

Over  300 

2 

2 

1.6 

0.5 

Not  reported 

7 

20 

27 

5.7 

6.8 

6.5 

Persons  Entirely  or  Partially  Dependent 
In  reply  to  the  item  as  to  responsibility  for  the  entire  support  of 
dependents,  approximately  85  percent  of  the  principals  reported. 
Of  those  reporting,  64  percent  had  one  adult  entirely  dependent 
upon  them  for  support  and  five  percent  had  two.  Thirty-one  per- 
cent had  no  one  entirely  dependent  upon  them  for  support.  Ninety- 
three  percent  of  the  teachers  answered  this  item.  Of  this  number 
92  percent  had  no  adults  entirely  dependent  upon  them  while  eight 
percent  had  one  adult.  Forty-one  percent  of  the  principals  report- 
ing had  entire  support  of  one  or  more  children,  while  three  percent 
of  the  teachers  reporting  had  children  entirely  dependent  upon  them 
for  support. 


Table  57. — Persons  Dependent  upon   Principals  and  Teachers  fob 

Support 


(a)  Persons  I 

ntirely  Dependent 

Adults 

Children 

Number 

dependent 

Not 

re- 

None 

1 

2 

None 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

ported 

Principals 

18 

33 

67 

5 

62 

23 

6 

10 

1 

2 

1 

Teachers 

19 

253 

20 

1 

266 

6 

1 

1 

Total 

37 

286 

87 

6 

328 

29 

7 

10 

2 

2 

1 

Percent  princi- 

pals1   

14.6 

31.4 

63.8 

4.8 

59.0 

21.9 

5.7 

9.5 

0.9 

1.9 

0.9 

Percent  teachers 

6.5 

92.3 

7.3 

0.4 

97.1 

2.2 

0.4 

0.4 

Percent  total . . . 

8.9 

75.5 

22.9 

1.6 

87.5 

7.7 

1.9 

2.7 

0.5 

0.5 

0.3 

(b)  Persons  Partially  Dependent 


Adults 

Children 

Number  dependent 

Not 
re- 
ported 

None 

1 

2 

3 

None 

1 

2 

3 

Principals 

Teachers 

16 
19 

90 
231 

14 

31 

3 
10 

2 

101 
258 

4 
13 

1 
3 

1 

Total 

35 

13.0 
6.5 

8.4 

321 

84.1 
84.3 
84.2 

45 

13.1 
11.3 
11.9 

13 

2.8 
3.6 
3.4 

2 

0.8 
0.5 

359 

94.4 
94.2 
94.2 

17 

3.7 
4.7 
4.4 

4 

0.9 
1.2 
l.l 

1 

Percent  of  principals1 . 
Percent  of  teachers .... 

0.9 
0.3 

1  Except  in  the  case  of  the  percent  not  reporting,  where  the  percentage  is 
computed  on  the  basis  of  the  full  number,  the  percentages  are  computed  on  the 
basis  of  the  actual  number  reporting  on  the  item  in  question. 


"3 


Eighty-seven  percent  of  the  principals  and  93  percent  of  the 
teachers  reported  on  the  item  as  to  persons  partially  dependent 
upon  them  for  support.  Of  the  principals  reporting,  84  percent  had 
no  adults  partially  dependent  upon  them  and  94  percent  no  children 
partially  dependent;  while  16  percent  were  partially  responsible  for 
the  support  of  one  or  two  adults  and  six  percent  for  one  to  three 
children.  Of  the  teachers  reporting,  84  percent  had  no  adults  par- 
tially dependent  upon  them  for  support  and  94  percent  no  children. 
Sixteen  percent  had  the  responsibility  for  the  partial  support  of  one 
to  three  adults  and  six  percent  for  the  partial  support  of  one  to  two 
children.     (See  Table  57.) 

Money  Earning  Work  Done  Other  than  Teaching 
On  this  item  the  proportion  of  principals  and  teachers  reporting 
was  comparatively  small,  approximately  63  percent  of  the  group 
studied  replying.  Of  the  principals  reporting,  over  31  percent  had 
never  done  money  earning  work  other  than  teaching,  and  the  same 
was  true  of  over  47  percent  of  the  teachers  who  replied  to  the  item. 
An  additional  23  percent  of  the  principals  and  32  percent  of  the 
teachers  had  done  other  money  earning  work  only  during  the  sum- 
mer. Approximately  10  percent  of  the  principals  reporting  had  fol- 
lowed some  other  type  of  work  for  one  year  or  less  and  35  percent 
had  engaged  in  other  types  of  work  for  a  period  of  one  to  ten  years  • 
Of  the  teachers  reporting,  approximately  five  percent  had  followed 
some  other  type  of  work  for  one  year  or  less,  and  over  15  percent 
had  pursued  another  calling  for  a  period  of  from  one  to  20  years. 
While  the  data  on  the  point  in  question  are  insufficient  for  any 
definite  conclusions,  they  would  seem  to  indicate  that  teaching  has 
been  predominantly  the  work  of  those  giving  instruction  in  the 
rural  high  schools  of  New  York.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that 
over  one-fifth  of  those  reporting  have  followed  other  vocations  for 
periods  of  time  varying  from  one-half  year  to  twenty  years.  It  is 
significant  also  that  only  for  principals  is  the  number  having  fol- 
lowed other  lines  of  work  for  a  period  of  one  year  or  more  more  than 
a  third  of  those  reporting.  Types  of  work  most  frequently  reported 
by  principals  as  having  been  followed  were  farming,  clerical  work, 
business,  factory  work,  insurance,  tutoring  and  the  work  of  sales- 

114 


man;  by  teachers:  tutoring,  office  work,  clerking,  farming,  factory 
work,  and  music. 


Table  58. 

—Money  Earning  Work  Engaged  in 

Other  Than  Teaching 

Length  of 
time 

None 

Only 

in 
sum- 
mer 

Less 
than 
one 
year 

One 

year 

Two 
years 

Three 
years 

Four 
years 

Five 
years 

6-10 

years 

11-20 

years 

Num- 
ber 
re- 
port- 
ing 

Not 
re- 
port- 
ing 

Principals. .  .  . 
Teachers 

24 
88 

18 
60 

8 
10 

13 
17 

3 

5 

2 

2 
2 

3 

1 

4 
1 

2 

77 
186 

46 

107 

Total 

1  Percent  of 
principals 

Percent    of 
teachers  . 

112 

31.2 
47.3 

78 

23.4 
32.3 

18 

10.4 

5.4 

30 

16.9 
9.1 

8 

3.9 
2.7 

2 
2.6 

4 

2.6 
1.1 

4 

3.7 
0.5 

5 

5.2 
0.5 

2 

1.1 

263 

62.6 
63.5 

153 

37.4 
36.5 

Percent    of 
total .... 

42.2 

29.6 

6.8 

11.4 

3.0 

0.8 

1.5 

1.5 

1.9 

0.8 

63.2 

36.8 

Professional  Growth 

It  is  quite  generally  recognized  that  an  important  factor  in  the 
professional  growth  of  the  members  of  a  profession  is  their  constant 
interest  in  and  contact  with  the  current  problems  and  trends  of  the 
profession.  The  physician  who  is  advancing  in  his  calling  must  keep 
in  touch  with  the  progress  made  in  medicine  and  the  treatment  of 
disease.  The  progressive  farmer  keeps  informed  as  to  the  develop- 
ments in  the  science  of  agriculture.  Likewise  the  teacher,  following 
one  of  the  most  difficult  of  callings,  if  he  is  to  continue  to  develop  in 
teaching  skill  and  understanding,  must  at  all  times  be  acquainted 
with  the  best  that  is  being  done  in  education,  at  least  in  the  phases 
pertaining  to  his  particular  type  of  work. 

While  it  is  practically  impossible  to  estimate  accurately  the  pro- 
fessional interest  and  growth  of  a  group  except  by  the  observation 
and  study  of  the  individuals  composing  it,  there  are  certain  things 
which  may  be  regarded  as  an  index.  One  index  of  professional  in- 
terest and  growth  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  professional  study 
while  in  service.    Among  other  things  are  membership  in  profes- 

1  The  percentages  as  to  types  of  money  earning  work  engaged  in  other  than 
teaching  are  computed  on  the  basis  of  number  reporting. 

"5 


sional  organizations  for  teachers,  professional  reading,  and  the  study 
of  the  work  of  other  teachers. 

As  to  the  manner  of  spending  the  summer  vacation,  406  of  the  416 
principals  and  teachers  gave  definite  replies.  Fifty-four  or  13  per- 
cent reported  attendance  at  summer  school;  131  or  31.5  percent 
worked  during  the  summer;  150  or  36  percent  gave  "at  home"  or 
"rest"  as  the  manner  of  spending  the  summer  vacation,  and  16  or 
3.8  percent  spent  the  time  in  study.  Other  ways  mentioned  by  a 
few  for  each  were:  tutoring,  farming,  keeping  house,  teaching 
music,  clerical  work,  travel,  and  athletics. 

Table  59. — Manner  of  Spending  the  Summer  Vacation 


Manner  of  spending 
vacation 

Principals 

Teachers 

Total 

Percent  of 
total 

Summer  school 

Study 

Work 

At  home 

22 
5 

55 
10 
10 
2 
1 
8 
1 
1 
2 

*4 
2 

32 
11 
76 

58 

72 

4 

6 

2 

10 
5 
2 
2 
5 
8 

54 

16 

131 

68 

82 

6 

7 

10 
11 
6 
4 
2 
9 
10 

13.0 

3.8 

31.5 

16.3 

Rest 

Tutoring 

Teach  music 

Farm 

Keep  house 

19.7 
1.4 
1.7 
2.4 
2.6 

Clerical  work 

Travel 

Athletics 

Miscellaneous 

Not  reported 

1.4 
1.0 
0.5 

2.2 
2.4 

With  regard  to  membership  in  educational  organizations,  29  per- 
cent of  the  123  principals  reported  no  membership  in  an  educational 
organization.  Thirty-four  percent  were  members  of  the  New  York 
State  Teachers  Association;  20  percent  belonged  to  other  New 
York  State  educational  associations.  Approximately  28  percent 
were  members  of  regional  or  county  organizations.  Six  and  one- 
half  percent  belonged  to  the  National  Education  Association  and 
eight  percent  were  members  of  other  national  educational  organiza- 
tions. 

Of  the  teachers,  48  percent  reported  no  membership  in  an  educa- 
tional organization.    Thirty-seven  percent  were  members  of  the 

n6 


New  York  State  Teachers  Association;  2.7  percent  belonged  to 
other  educational  organizations  of  the  State;  and  13  percent  be- 
longed to  regional  or  county  associations.  Five  percent  of  the  teach- 
ers were  members  of  the  Modern  Language  Association,  two  per- 
cent of  the  National  Education  Association,  and  7.4  percent  re- 
ported membership  in  other  national  teachers'  organizations.  The 
average  membership  for  each  principal  was  approximately  one  or- 
ganization: the  average  membership  in  educational  organizations 
for  each  teacher  was  approximately  two- thirds. 

Table  60. — Membership  in  Teachers'  Organizations 


Kind  of  organization 

Princi- 
pals 

Per- 
cent 

Teach- 
ers 

Per- 
cent 

Total 

Per- 
cent 

None 

36 

29.3 

141 

48.1 

177 

42.5 

N.  Y.  State  Teachers  Asso- 

ciation   

42 

34.1 

108 

36.9 

150 

36-.1 

Section  or  County  Associa- 

tion   

34 

27.6 

39 

13.3 

73 

17.5 

Nat'l  Education  Association 

8 

6.5 

6 

2.0 

14 

3.4 

Other  Nat'l  Teachers  Asso- 

ciations   

10 

8.1 

21 

7.2 

31 

7.4 

In  answer  to  the  query  as  to  professional  reading  done  during  the 
year,  slightly  over  40  percent  of  the  rural  high  school  principals  re- 
ported no  reading  in  professional  magazines  and  journals.  The  five 
publications  most  often  mentioned  by  the  principals  who  had  done 
professional  reading  of  this  sort  were,  in  order  of  frequency  given, 
The  School  Board  Journal,  New  York  Teachers  Association  Journal, 
The  State  Department  School  Bulletin,  American  Education,  and 
the  Journal  of  the  National  Education  Association.  Thirty-one  per- 
cent of  the  principals  reported  no  reading  of  professional  books  dur- 
ing the  year.  The  five  books  most  frequently  mentioned  by  those 
who  had  read  professional  books  were,  in  the  order  of  frequency 
mentioned,  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,  Parker;  Com- 
mon Sense  in  School  Supervision,  Wagner;  The  Discipline  of  the 
School,  Morehouse;  The  Class-room  Teacher,  Strayer  and  Engel- 
hardt;  and  the  Administration  of  Village  and  Consolidated  Schools, 
Finney  and  Schafer. 

117 


Forty-three  percent  of  the  teachers  reported  no  reading  of  pro- 
fessional magazines  and  journals  during  the  year,  and  an  additional 
six  percent  had  read  only  the  New  York  State  Teachers  Association 
Journal.  The  five  most  frequently  mentioned  educational  maga- 
zines and  journals  read  by  teachers  were  in  the  order  of  frequency 
mentioned:  New  York  State  Teachers  Association  Journal,  The 
English  Journal,  The  Modern  Language  Journal,  The  Historical 
Outlook,  and  the  Classical  Journal.  Forty-nine  percent  of  the  teach- 
ers reported  no  reading  of  professional  books  during  the  year.  Those 
who  had  done  reading  in  professional  books  gave  the  following  most 
frequently,  in  the  order  mentioned:  The  Teaching  of  English, 
Chubb;  The  Teaching  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools,  Thomas; 
School  Discipline,  Bagley;  All  the  Children  of  all  the  People, 
Smith;   and  The  Teaching  of  History,  Johnson. 

Of  the  405  principals  answering  the  questionnaire  on  administra- 
tion and  organization  of  the  rural  high  school,  348  replied  to  the 
query  as  to  the  existence  of  a  teachers'  reading  circle  in  their  school. 
According  to  these  replies  there  were  during  the  school  year  of 
1920-1921  twenty- three  teachers'  reading  circles  in  the  348  schools, 
or  one  for  each  15  schools. 


Table  61. — Teachers'  Reading  Circles  as  Reported  b\ 
School  Principals 

348  Rural  High 

Type  of  school 

1-49 
pupils 

50-99 
pupils 

100-149 
pupils 

150  and 
over 

Total 

Number  of  schools  with  teach- 
ers' reading  circle 

7 
170 

7 
101 

4 
43 

5 
11 

23 

Number  of  schools  having  no 
teachers'  reading  circle 

325 

The  instructor  in  the  city  high  school  usually  has  the  opportunity 
of  coming  in  touch  each  day  with  other  teachers  giving  instruction 
in  the  same  subject.  Under  such  circumstances  discussions  of  or- 
ganization of  subject  matter,  method,  and  aims  become  almost  in- 
evitable. There  is  a  sharing  of  problems  and  ways  of  solving  them. 
In  many  cities  also  there  is  provision  for  the  observation  of  teaching 
as  done  by  the  stronger  teachers  in  the  same  high  school  or  in  other 

n8 


schools.  In  the  rural  high  school  there  is  usually  lacking  the  daily 
contact  of  a  teacher  with  others  doing  the  same  type  of  work.  The 
observation  of  teaching  as  done  by  other  teachers  is  as  a  general 
thing  rare  or  entirely  lacking.  Thus  the  rural  high  school  teacher 
tends  to  lose  the  help  and  inspiration  in  his  work  that  might  come 
from  such  contacts. 

The  data  supplied  by  338  principals  indicate  that  opportunity  for 
one  of  these  means  of  growth,  the  observation  of  teaching  in  other 
schools,  is  given  teachers  in  a  considerable  number  of  schools.  While 
53  percent  reported  that  their  teachers  had  not  observed  teaching  in 
other  schools  during  the  year,  over  28  percent  reported  that  their 
teachers  had  observed  teaching  in  other  schools  once,  and  19  per- 
cent reported  two  or  more  observations  during  the  year.  These 
replies  indicate  that  many  rural  high  school  teachers  have  some  op- 
portunity to  observe  teaching  as  done  by  instructors  in  other 
schools. 

Summary  of  Salient  Points 

The  facts  found  with  regard  to  the  teaching  staff  of  the  rural  high 
school  show  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  instructors  are  immature 
and  inexperienced.  One-fourth  of  the  teachers  (excluding  the  prin- 
cipals) under  whose  direction  the  pupil  receives  his  training  are  24 
years  old  or  younger,  and  over  one-half  his  instructors,  including  his 
principal,  are  under  28  years  of  age.  While  there  are  undoubtedly 
many  things  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  young  high  school  teacher 
filled  with  enthusiasm  for  his  work,  the  lack  of  contact  with  mature 
instructors  possessed  of  a  background  of  experience  is  also  un- 
doubtedly a  handicap  in  the  training  of  the  pupil  in  the  rural  high 
school. 

Excluding  his  principal,  one  out  of  every  four  teachers  of  the  rural 
high  school  pupil  is  practically  without  experience,  having  had  one 
year  or  less,  and  one  out  of  every  five,  including  his  principal. 
Practically  one-half  of  his  teachers  are  new  to  his  school  each  year, 
and  in  over  three  schools  out  of  every  ten  the  pupil  is  under  the 
guidance  and  counsel  of  a  principal  new  to  the  position  and  to  the 
community.  He  has  practically  one  chance  in  seven  of  graduating 
under  the  same  principal  with  whom  he  begins  his  school  work. 

119 


Of  the  high  school  teaching  staff,  three  in  ten  are  men.  This  pro- 
portion of  men  to  women  teachers  is  not  much  below  the  ratio  com- 
monly found  in  high  schools  throughout  the  country.  Considering, 
however,  the  fact  that  the  male  teacher  in  the  small  school  is  usually 
the  principal,  the  actual  teaching  ratio  is  lower  than  that  indicated 
by  the  proportion  of  men  to  women.  In  reality  the  pupil  in  the 
rural  high  school  receives  instruction  from  a  man  in  less  than  one 
out  of  every  four  recitations.  Without  entering  at  all  into  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  the  work  done  by  men  and  women  as  high  school  in- 
structors, the  fact  remains  that  the  high  school  boy  particularly 
would  probably  profit  by  more  frequent  contacts  with  men  during 
his  high  school  course.  Especially  in  the  promotion  and  stimulation 
of  extra-class  activities  of  the  type  interesting  to  boys  more  men 
are  needed  as  teachers  in  the  rural  high  schools.  This  would  seem 
to  be  one  of  the  problems  worthy  of  serious  attention. 

Practically  nine  out  of  every  ten  instructors  are  of  American 
stock.  More  than  eight  out  of  every  ten  are  from  the  State  of  New 
York.  Approximately  three  out  of  four  are  either  from  the  open 
country  or  from  villages.  Between  four  and  five  out  of  every  ten 
are  from  families  interested  in  farming  as  an  occupation.  These 
facts  indicate  that  a  fair  proportion  of  the  teaching  staff  should, 
both  by  virtue  of  early  experience  and  present  occupational  inter- 
ests, have  a  sympathetic  attitude  toward  and  some  understanding  of 
rural  life  and  rural  problems.  The  high  percentages  coming  from 
New  York  State  should  give  a  rural  high  school  staff  especially  well 
informed  as  to  problems  within  the  State.  There  is  a  question,  how- 
ever, as  to  whether  there  might  not  be  advantages  in  breadth  of 
view  and  differences  in  viewpoint  to  be  gained  from  a  larger  number 
of  principals  and  teachers  recruited  from  other  states. 

Approximately  three  in  five  of  the  rural  high  school  teaching  staff 
have  had  regular  academic  and  professional  training  equal  to  grad- 
uation from  a  standard  college.  Four  instructors  in  one  hundred 
have  done  graduate  work.  Nineteen  in  one  hundred  have  had  an 
amount  of  regular  training  represented  by  graduation  from  a  normal 
school ;  and  nine  in  a  hundred  have  done  from  one  to  four  years  of 
college  work.  Ten  in  a  hundred  have  had  less  regular  training  than 
is  required  for  graduation  from  a  standard  normal  school  and  eight 


percent  have  had  only  a  high  school  course  or  high  school  plus  one 
year  in  a  high  school  training  class.  Conservatively  stated,  the  facts 
show  that  more  than  35  in  each  100,  or  more  than  one  out  of  three 
of  the  rural  high  school  corps  of  instruction,  have  less  training  than 
the  minimum  standards  generally  recognized  as  desirable  for  teach- 
ing in  standard  high  schools.  This  conclusion  is  based  upon  stan- 
dards already  existing.  The  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Secondary  Schools,  including  in  its  territory  eighteen  States  in 
the  Middle  West  and  West,  requires  that  the  instructors  of  aca- 
demic subjects  in  high  schools  accredited  by  the  Association  shall 
have  as  a  minimum  preparation  a  four-year  course  in  a  standard 
college  of  which  at  least  eleven  semester  hours  must  have  been  de- 
voted to  professional  training.  California  has  set  as  its  standard 
for  high  school  instructors  in  academic  subjects  graduation  from 
college  plus  one  year  of  advanced  work.  New  York  City  requires 
graduation  from  a  standard  college  or  university  (or  the  equivalent 
in  the  case  of  a  teacher  of  modern  foreign  languages) .  In  addition  it 
requires  either  a  year's  experience  in  teaching  in  secondary  schools 
or  in  college,  or  300  hours  of  graduate  work,  60  hours  of  which  shall 
be  devoted  to  methods  in  the  subject  to  be  taught,  or  combinations 
of  graduate  study  and  experience  equivalent  to  the  300  hours  of 
academic  study. 

The  study  of  salaries  in  the  rural  high  schools  shows  that  there 
was  a  considerable  increase  in  1920-1921  over  1919-20.  The  in- 
crease is  clearly  due  to  the  special  funds  coming  from  the  State  under 
the  Lockwood-Donahue  Act.  Of  both  principals,  and  teachers, 
however,  at  least  one-fourth  received  in  1920-1921  less  than  should 
be  paid  for  high  school  instruction  if  the  rural  high  school  is  to  build 
up  a  well-trained  permanent  teaching  force.  A  median  salary  of 
$1,750  for  principalship  positions  with  one-fourth  under  $1,500  is 
too  low  to  attract  and  hold  men  of  desirable  training  and  ability  to 
work  in  the  rural  high  school.  With  a  median  salary  for  teachers  of 
less  than  $1,225,  and  with  one-fourth  of  the  salaries  under  $1,125 
and  less  than  one-fourth  over  $1,350,  the  rural  high  school  is  not 
in  a  position  to  demand  teachers  with  the  desired  amount  of  training 
or  to  hold  such  teachers  when  secured.  Under  existing  salary  con- 
ditions the  well-trained  teacher  of  ability  will  look  toward  the  city 


high  school  positions  after  a  year  or  two  of  teaching  experience 
gained  in  the  rural  high  school. 

It  should  be  recognized  that  the  question  of  salary  is  not  the  only 
factor  drawing  teachers  toward  the  larger  high  schools.  The  social 
and  professional  advantages  of  the  larger  centers  are  undoubtedly 
important  factors.  The  opportunities  for  greater  specialization  and 
the  smaller  number  of  daily  teaching  periods  as  contrasted  with  the 
wide  range  of  subjects  and  larger  number  of  teaching  periods  re- 
quired in  the  rural  high  school  are  also  factors  operating  to  attract 
to  the  larger  schools  those  planning  to  make  teaching  a  profession. 
To  offset  these  attractive  features  of  the  high  school  positions  in 
urban  centers,  among  other  things,  it  would  seem  that  the  rural 
high  school  must  offer  greater  salary  inducements  definitely  reward- 
ing teaching  experience  and  professional  improvement. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  maintaining  the  efficiency 
of  a  teaching  force  is  generally  recognized  to  be  its  active  interest  in 
professional  problems.  All  findings  indicate  that  as  a  group  the 
rural  high  school  teachers  give  a  small  amount  of  time  to  those 
things  tending  toward  professional  growth.  Many  individual  prin- 
cipals and  teachers  give  much  attention  to  professional  reading  and 
other  means  of  professional  improvement.  As  a  group,  however, 
the  percentage  attending  summer  schools  is  exceedingly  low,  being 
only  13  percent  in  the  case  of  416  principals  and  teachers  studied. 
The  data  indicate  also  that  a  comparatively  large  percentage  of  the 
principals  and  teachers  are  not  members  of  any  teachers'  associa- 
tions. In  the  case  of  principals,  29  percent  reported  no  membership 
in  an  educational  organization  and  48  percent  of  the  teachers  re- 
ported no  membership.  Four  out  of  every  ten  principals  and  teach- 
ers reported  no  reading  for  the  year  in  professional  magazines  and 
journals.  Three  out  of  ten  in  the  case  of  the  principals  and  five  out 
of  ten  in  the  case  of  the  teachers  reported  no  professional  books 
read  during  the  year.  In  23  out  of  348  high  schools  for  which  data 
are  available  there  were  teachers'  reading  circles  for  the  study  of 
educational  questions.  In  47  percent  of  the  338  rural  high  schools 
where  the  principal  reported  on  the  item  the  teachers  observed 
teaching  in  other  high  schools  once  or  more  than  once  during  the 
year.    All  findings  show  that  more  opportunities  for  professional 


improvement  and  more  stimulation  toward  the  professional  growth 
of  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers  are  needed  in  the  State. 

Recommendations  for  the  Improvement  of  the  Rural  High 
School  Teacher 

All  steps  looking  toward  the  improvement  of  the  rural  high  school 
teaching  staff  should  have  as  the  aims:  (1)  The  creation  of  a  pro- 
fessional body  of  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers  with 
academic  and  professional  training  equal  to  graduation  from  a 
standard  college  and  with  an  amount  of  time  devoted  to  professional 
training  equal  to  at  least  twelve  college  semester  hours;  and  (2)  the 
stimulation  of  professional  interest  and  growth  during  service. 

I 

It, is  therefore  recommended: 

1.  That  the  existing  system  of  certification  as  it  applies  to  rural 
high  school  principals  and  teachers  be  simplified  and  modified  with 
the  aim  of  raising  the  standards  for  teaching  in  the  rural  high 
schools  of  New  York,  and  of  furnishing  increased  incentive  for  pro- 
fessional growth  while  in  service.1 

(a)  That  a  College  Graduate  Professional  Life  Certificate  be  the 
only  life  certificate  for  teaching  in  the  rural  high  schools  of  the 
State:  (1)  That  this  certificate  state  specifically,  in  the  case  of  teach- 
ers of  academic  subjects,  the  major  and  minor  groups  of  subjects, 
and  in  the  case  of  a  teacher  of  vocational  subjects,  the  major  field 
and  one  minor  (which  may  be  an  academic  group)  in  which  the 
holder  is  authorized  to  give  high  school  instruction;  and  (2)  that 
this  certificate  be  granted  only  after  a  minimum  of  five  years  of 
successful  teaching  in  high  school  and  one  year  of  graduate  study 
of  which  a  minimum  of  one-half  shall  have  been  devoted  to  pro- 
fessional subjects.  The  major  and  minor  groups  shall  be  deter- 
mined in  terms  of  the  amount  of  time  required  for  major  and  minor 
groups  of  subjects  respectively  for  graduation  from  a  standard  col- 
lege as  defined  by  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

1  It  should  be  noted  that  the  Assistant  Commissioner  for  Secondary  Educa- 
tion in  his  report  of  1914  called  attention  to  the  need  of  higher  standards  for 
teaching  in  the  high  schools  of  the  State  and  recommended  a  plan  similar  in  some 
respects  to  the  one  presented  in  this  report.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education,  1914,  pp.  194-195. 

123 


(b)  That  a  College  Graduate  Professional  Limited  Certificate  good 
for  five  years  and  renewable  for  an  additional  term  of  five  years  and 
requiring  a  minimum  of  twelve  semester  hours  of  professional  train- 
ing as  a  part  of  the  work  toward  the  college  degree  be,  after  1927, 
the  lowest  certificate  granted  for  teaching  in  the  rural  high  schools 
of  the  State.  It  is  recommended  that  this  certificate  state  specific- 
ally, as  in  the  College  Graduate  Professional  Life  Certificate,  the 
major  and  minor  groups  of  subjects  in  which  the  holder  is  author- 
ized to  give  high  school  instruction,  and  that  the  interpretation  of 
major  and  minor  groups  be  identical  with  that  in  the  College  Grad- 
uate Professional  Life  Certificate. 

(c)  That  a  College  Graduate  Temporary  Certificate  good  for  two 
years  and  not  renewable  be  granted  on  a  degree  from  a  standard 
college  and  authorizing  the  holder  to  give  high  school  instruction  in 
groups  of  subjects  specifically  stated,  the  interpretation  of  major 
and  minor  subject  groups  to  be  identical  with  that  in  the  higher 
certificates.  It  is  recommended  that  this  certificate  be  discon- 
tinued after  1927. 

(d)  It  is  recommended  that  for  principalship  or  supervisory  work 
in  the  rural  high  schools  of  the  State,  either  certificate  (a)  or  (b)  be 
required,  with  the  special  requirements:  (1)  that  one-half  of  the 
professional  study  regularly  required  for  the  certificate  be  in  the 
fields  of  school  administration,  organization,  and  supervision;  or 
(2)  that  a  minimum  of  six  semester  hours  shall  have  been  devoted 
to  the  study  of  these  subjects  in  addition  to  the  regular  require- 
ments in  professional  subjects,  as  provided  for  in  certificates  (a) 
and  (b). 

II 

The  standards  proposed  in  the  plan  of  certification  for  rural  high 
school  teachers  are  conservative  in  comparison  with  those  the 
North  Central  Association  of  Secondary  Schools  and  Colleges,  in- 
cluding in  its  territory  eighteen  States,  requires  for  teaching  in  high 
schools  accredited  by  the  association.  They  are  conservative  also 
when  compared  with  the  requirements  for  teaching  in  high  schools 
in  California,  or  in  New  York  City,  and  other  cities.  It  is  realized, 
however,  that  the  proposed  standards  are  not  justified  under  pres- 

124 


ent  conditions  as  to  salaries  in  the  rural  high  schools.    Therefore  it 
is  recommended  that: 

1.  A  graduated  salary  schedule  be  formulated  for  the  rural  high 
schools  of  the  State  that  shall  be  based  upon: 

(a)  Academic  and  professional  training. 

(b)  Professional  experience  and  success. 

(c)  Professional  improvement  in  service. 

This  salary  schedule  should  be  designed  to  reward  teaching  on  the 
basis  of  the  three  items  above  rather  than  upon  the  size  of  the  high 
school  in  which  the  teaching  is  done  or  upon  the  wealth  of  the  par- 
ticular community  in  which  the  school  is  situated. 

Ill 

One  of  the  great  needs  of  the  New  York  rural  high  school  today 
as  shown  by  all  phases  of  the  study  of  the  rural  high  schools  is  a 
body  of  principals  and  teachers  of  thorough  professional  training 
and  informed  and  alive  to  the  recent  developments  in  all  aspects  of 
secondary  education.  To  insure  the  existence  of  such  a  professional 
body  the  recommendations  in  I  and  II  are  important  factors. 
There  is  also  imperative  the  development  of  specific  means  and 
agencies,  first,  to  prepare  persons  to  become  teachers  in  the  rural 
high  schools  of  the  State;  and  secondly,  for  placing  before  principals 
and  teachers  in  service  the  latest  ideas  and  means  for  the  improve- 
ment of  their  work.  To  meet  the  needs  of  the  first  group,  those  pre- 
paring to  teach,  the  State  should  make  more  adequate  provision  for 
the  training  of  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers.  To  meet 
the  needs  of  the  second  group,  those  in  service,  it  would  seem  advis- 
able to  make  more  specific  provision  for  the  consideration  of  rural 
high  school  problems  in  administration,  supervision,  and  instruc- 
tion. To  accomplish  this  end  partially,  more  definite  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  consideration  of  rural  high  school  problems 
in  such  existing  agencies  as  the  State  Teachers  Association  and  the 
various  local  and  regional  teachers'  organizations.  These  should  be 
supplemented  by  agencies  to  be  devised  and  set  up  specifically  for 
the  training  of  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers  in  service, 
as:  summer  school  courses  of  college  grade  planned  definitely  to 
consider  the  problems  of  the  small  high  school  in  the  selection  and 

125 


organization  of  subject  matter  and  the  methods  of  teaching  the 
various  high  school  subjects;  in  the  administration,  organization, 
and  supervision  of  the  small  high  school;  and  in  the  principles 
underlying  secondary  education.  Conferences  for  high  school  prin- 
cipals and  teachers  dealing  with  specific  problems  should  become  a 
feature  in  each  of  the  intermediate  school  units  of  the  State.  In 
addition,  extension  courses  should  be  encouraged  wherever  possible. 


126 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  OBSERVATION  OF  CLASS-ROOM  INSTRUCTION 

ONE  of  the  important  factors  in  determining  the  efficiency  of 
any  school  or  type  of  schools  is  undoubtedly  the  work  o1 
the  class-room  teacher.  To  give  an  adequate  picture  of 
New  York  rural  high  schools  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  make  a 
careful  study  of  a  comparatively  large  number  of  recitations  in  a 
large  number  of  high  schools  and  in  a  fairly  wide  range  of  subjects. 
The  difficulties  of  estimating  definitely  the  efficiency  of  any  recita- 
tion were,  of  course,  recognized.  Scientifically  established  criteria  of 
high  school  teaching  are  unfortunately  lacking.  It  seemed  advisable 
to  devise  a  plan  which  should  first  give  attention  to  those  phases  of 
high  school  class-room  work  that  are  generally  conceded  to  be  in- 
dices of  its  efficiency;  and  secondly,  be  reducible  in  part  at  least  to 
statistical  treatment.  It  was  deemed  important  also  that  the  plan 
used  should  be  interpreted  similarly  by  all  persons  working  on  this 
problem  of  the  survey  in  order  to  yield  comparable  results. 

Method  Used 
With  the  above  requirements  in  the  foreground,  a  provisional 
plan  for  the  observation  of  high  school  instruction  was  formulated. 
This  provisional  plan  was  then  submitted  to  various  members  of  the 
survey  staff  and  to  other  persons  of  wide  experience  in  education 
and  particularly  in  high  school  supervision.  After  revision  in  ac- 
cordance with  criticisms  offered  the  plan  was  tested  in  the  actual 
observation  of  a  number  of  recitations  in  several  high  schools  and 
the  existing  weaknesses  eliminated  in  so  far  as  possible.  The  out- 
line as  finally  used  in  the  survey  was  divided  into  five  main  sec- 
tions: (1)  Class  Routine;  (2)  Assignment  and  Study  Guidance; 
(3)  Conduct  of  the  Recitation,  with  five  special  items  for  subjects  of 
the  form  or  drill  type,  as  mathematics  and  languages,  and  for  recita- 

127 


tions  in  other  subjects  where  the  work  of  the  recitations  was  upon 
these  phases;  (4)  General  observations;  and  (5)  Critical  comments. 

NEW  YORK  STATE  RURAL  SCHOOL  SURVEY 
Observation  of  High  School  Teaching 


School                                                        Date  Observer 

Subject                                                       No.  pupils  Class  or  year 

Lesson  Topic  

I.  Class  Routine: 

(1)  Time  spent  in  preliminaries? 

(2)  Were  the  materials  systematically  arranged  and  handled? 

(3)  Conditions  favorable  for  work? Chief  hindrances? 


II.  Assignment  and  Study  Guidance: 

(1)  Place  of  assignment:   Beginning? Close? Divided? 

(2)  Amount  of  time  consumed? Taken  by  pupils  in  written  form? 

(3)  Aim:   Definite  (clear  statement  of  objective  to  be  attained?) 

Certain  number  of  pages  or  topics  in  text? 

(4)  How  motivated? Were  "Regents"  mentioned? 

How? 

(5)  Did  pupils  enter  into  the  making  of  assignment  by  suggesting  problems 

or  topics  of  interest  to  them? 

(6)  What  was  done  in  the  way  of  suggestions  for  working  out  assignment 

(problems,  guiding  topics,  supplementary  readings,  observations,  experi- 
ments, methods  of  attack,  community  sources)? 

(7)  Was  any  differentiation  in  assignment  made? On  what  basis? 

III.  Conduct  of  Recitation: 

(1)  Was  aim  clear  and  definite,  either  as  stated  by  instructor  or  as  evident 

from  recitation? remote? immediate? 

(2)  Type  of  lesson:  development drill review study 

catechizing application appreciation other  types 

(3)  Procedure:   question  and  answer topical  discussion class 

reports telling lab.  exercises note  taking read- 
ing of  text  and  discussion demonstration seat  work 

blackboard   work oral   drill criticism   of   work   previously 

done  by  the  class other  procedure 

128 


(4)  Outstanding  characteristics  of  questions:   thought  stimulating 

yes  and  no clear  cut vague other  characteristics 

(5)  Fraction  of  answers  repeated  by  instructor?  apparent  purpose? 


(6)  Fraction  of  class  called  upon? fraction  of  responses  satisfactory  to 

instructor? number   of    failures    to    respond    when    called    upon? 


(7)  Were  pupils  encouraged  to  contribute  new  material? to  express 

divergent  views? were  supporting  facts  insisted  upon? 

(8)  What  devices  were  used  to  give  concreteness  to  the  work  (blackboard 

illustrations objects drawings specimens maps 

examples charts applications  of  principle  to  known 

situations,  etc.?) 

(9)  Were  any  connections  made  with  other  school  subjects? 

With  other  things  within  pupils'  experience? 

(10)  Did  instructor  try  to  arrive  at  conclusions  for  which  there  was  evident 

lack  of  facts  in  possession  of  pupils? 

What  was  done? 

(11)  Did  recitation  hold  consistently  to  its  purpose? rambling? 

(12)  What  variety  in  procedure  was  used? 

For  Form  Subjects  Only: 

(13)  Were  responses  made  by  class  in  the  main,  accurate? inaccu- 

rate?  given  with  confidence? doubt? 

(14)  Were  errors  immediately  checked  up  and  pupils  making  them  required 

to  give  correct  responses? 

(15)  To  what  extent  were  the  corrections  contributed  by  members  of  the 

class? 

(16)  Were  the  pupils  given  practice  in  applying  known  facts  and  princi- 

ples to  problems  containing  new  elements? in  miscellaneous 

order? 

(17)  Drill:  Fraction  of  recitation  given  to  drill? snappy? 

listless? emphasize  pivotal  points? attention  given  to 

speed? accuracy? need  of  drill  made  evident  to  pupils? 

how? to  what  extent  was  time 

spent   drilling   individual   pupils   upon   items   apparently   known    to 
rest  of  class? 

IV.  General  Observations: 

(1)  Was  attitude  of  pupils — attentive? orderly? indifferent? 

disorderly? If  indifferent  or  disorderly,   what  was  apparent 

cause? 

(2)  Were  desirable  habits  of   work   emphasized:    punctuality   in  assigned 

work? neatness? thoroughness? responsibility? 

9  I29 


(3)  Were  pupils  in  process  of  recitation   frequently  interrupted  by  other 

pupils? by  instructor? purpose? 

(4)  Fraction  of  recitation  consumed  by  instructor  talking? 

to  what  end? ? 

(5)  Fraction  of  recitation  that  instructor  remained  seated  at  desk? 

(6)  Did  instructor  give  evidences  of  adequate  preparation  for  the  recita- 

tion?  pupils? 

(7)  What  use  did  instructor  make  of  text  during  recitation? 

(8)  Fraction  of  class  kept  busy  during  recitation? 

(9)  Were  "Regents"  mentioned? How? 

(10)  What  points  in  recitation  stood  out  in  mind  of  observer  as  having  been 

adequately  developed  during  recitation? 

(11)  In  the  opinion  of  observer  what  was  the  strongest  feature  of  the  recita- 

tion?  

Weakest? 

V.  Critical  Comments:  Criticize  carefully  organization  and  procedure,  e.g., 
questioning,  presentation,  development  of  main  points,  manner  of  in- 
structor toward  class,  etc. 

The  plan  having  been  determined  upon,  a  staff  of  seven  persons, 
all  of  whom  had  had  broad  experience  in  directing  and  supervising 
high  school  instruction,  was  selected.  This  staff  met  and  gave  a  day 
to  a  careful  analytical  study  of  the  plan  and  to  training  in  its  use. 
Definite  written  instructions  were  given  to  each  person  as  to  the 
methods  of  observation  and  the  recording  of  data  so  that  as  little 
variation  as  possible  might  result.  Each  recitation  observed  was 
seen  in  its  entirety  and  every  period  of  observation  was  followed  by 
a  free  period  during  which  the  observer  completed  his  report  on  the 
recitation  visited  before  making  the  next  observation.  The  sub- 
jects the  teaching  of  which  was  observed  were  those  most  com- 
monly taught  with  the  exception  of  two  recitations  in  commercial 
arithmetic  and  commercial  geography. 

Number  of  Schools  Visited  and  Recitations  Observed 

The  observation  staff  studied  class-room  work  in  61  different  high 

schools  located  in  every  section  of  the  State  and  including  all  types 

of  rural  high  schools  based  upon  number  of  pupils  enrolled.    One 

hundred  and  seventy-nine  recitations  were  observed  as  taught  by 


144  different  instructors.    The  observations  were  distributed  as  to 
the  time  of  the  year  as  follows: 

April  18-27,  1921 8  observations 

May  9-13,  1921 100 

May  16-20,  1921 42 

October  10-28,  1921 29 

The  subjects  the  teaching  of  which  was  observed,  and  number  of 
recitations  in  each,  were  as  follows: 

History,  24;  English,  35;  algebra,  22;  plane  geometry,  15;  for- 
eign languages,  33;  biology,  23;  physics,  11;  civics,  14;  commercial 
arithmetic,  1;   commercial  geography,  1;   total,  179. 

Statistical  Resume  of  Results 
In  detail,  the  observation  of  high  school  instruction  in  the  rural 
high  schools  visited  brought  out  the  following  facts,  which  it  seems 
reasonable  to  assume  represent  fairly  well  teaching  in  all  rural  high 
schools  of  the  State: 

I.  Class  routine: 

1 .  How  much  time  was  spent  in  the  steps  preliminary  to  the  work 
of  the  recitation? 

None,  102  recitations;    1  to  3  minutes,  66;  4  to  5  minutes,  9; 
6  to  10  minutes,  2  recitations. 

2.  Were  materials  systematically  arranged  and  handled? 
None  used  other  than  text-book,  99;  yes,  68;  no,  12. 

3.  Were  conditions  favorable  for  work? 
No,  44  recitations;  yes,  109;  fair,  26. 

What  were  the  chief  hindrances  in  carrying  on  the  work? 

Large  assembly  room,  2;  class  in  study  room,  38;  dark  room,  10; 
small  crowded  room,  9;  shortage  of  books,  15;  other  hindrances 
reported  were  chairs  without  writing  arms;  insufficient  blackboard 
space;   and  noisy  room. 

II.  Assignment  and  Study  Guidance: 

1 .  At  what  point  in  the  recitation  was  the  assignment  made? 
Beginning,  53  recitations;  close,  96;  divided,  30. 

131 


2.  How  much  time  was  devoted  to  the  making  of  the  assignment? 

Less  than  yi  minute,  36  cases;  ^  to  1  minute,  50;  1  to  5 
minutes,  63;  5  minutes  or  over,  30. 

3.  Was  the  aim  of  the  assignment  definite  (clear  statement  of  the 
objectives  to  be  attained)  or  was  it  indefinite  and  vague? 

Definite,  55  cases;  indefinite  and  vague,  102;  difficult  to 
classify,  22. 

3  (a).  Was  the  assignment  taken  by  the  pupils  in  written  form? 
No,  100  cases;  yes,  50;  merely  checked  in  text,  29. 

3  (b).  Was  the  assignment  made  in  terms  of  pages  in  the  text- 
book only? 

Yes,  132  cases;  no,  47. 

4.  Was  any  attempt  made  to  motivate  the  assignment? 

No  attempt,  94  recitations;  some  attempt  made,  85  recita- 
tions. 

4  (a).  What  was  the  nature  of  the  motivation? 

Mention  of  Regents  examinations,  45  recitations;  mention  of 
school  examinations,  5;  emphasizing  the  need  of  study,  12; 
connections  made  with  current  questions,  8;  interest  in  new 
phases  of  the  work,  3;  rivalry  between  members  of  the  class, 
2;  remain  after  school,  2;  told  to  prepare  the  lesson,  2;  assign- 
ment of  problems,  5 ;  interest  in  characters  in  literature,  1 . 

5.  Did  pupils  enter  into  the  making  of  the  assignment  by  sug- 
gesting problems  or  topics  of  interest  to  them? 

No,  167  assignments;  yes,  12  assignments. 

6.  What  was  done  in  the  way  of  suggestions  for  working  out  the 
assignment? 

Nothing,  107  cases;  problems,  10;  calling  attention  to  guiding 
topics  and  important  items,  36;  hints  as  to  methods  of  attack, 
17;   assignment  of  supplementary  reading,  9. 

7.  Was  any  differentiation  made  in  the  assignment,  and  if  so, 
what? 

No,  174  cases;  yes,  5. 

132 


7  (a).  Nature  of  the  differentiation : 

Individual  pupils  asked  to  choose  a  subject,  2  assignments; 
Assignments  of  topics  to  individual  pupils,  2;  Assignment 
to  individuals  of  topics  at  close  of  chapter  in  text-book,  1 . 

III.  The  Conduct  of  the  Recitation: 

1.  Was  the  aim  of  the  recitation  clear  and  definite,  either  as 
stated  by  the  instructor  or  as  evident  from  the  recitation,  or 
was  it  indefinite? 

Clear  and  definite,  99  recitations;  indefinite,  80. 

1   (a).  Was  the  aim  remote  or  immediate? 

Remote,  72  recitations;  immediate,  44;  so  indefinite  as  to  make 
classification  impossible,  63. 

2.  What  types  of  lesson  were  most  prominent? l 

Development,  51  recitations;  review,  85;  catechizing,  82; 
drill,  44;  application,  39;  appreciation,  13;  telling,  15;  study, 
8;   debate,  1;   observation,  1. 

3.  What  was  the  procedure  or  method  of  attack  used  in  the  recita- 
tion? 

Question  and  answer,  137;  blackboard  work,  62;  telling,  49; 
topical  discussion,  27;  seat  work,  23;  reading  of  text  and  dis- 
cussion, 22;  demonstration  and  laboratory,  21;  criticism  of 
work  previously  prepared  by  the  class,  16;  oral  drill,  19;  trans- 
lation, 12;   class  reports,  10;  taking  notes  and  dictation,  8. 

4.  What  were  the  outstanding  characteristics  of  the  questions 
used? 

Thought  stimulating,  96 ;  memory  testing,  81 ;  many  "yes  and 
no"  questions,  62;  questions  clear  cut  and  direct,  64;  vague 
and  indefinite,  17;  many  questions  suggesting  their  own  an- 
swer, 6;  stereotyped  form  of  question,  4;  questions  answered 
by  the  instructor  without  giving  the  pupils  an  opportunity  to 
answer,  5. 

1  In  item  2  and  the  two  following  items  the  number  of  cases  does  not  equal 
the  total  number  of  recitations  observed,  as  more  than  one  type  was  prominent  in 
the  course  of  the  recitation  period. 

133 


5.  What  fraction  of  the  answers  to  questions  were  repeated  by 
the  instructor? 

None,  110  recitations;  less  than  one-half,  19  recitations;  one- 
half  or  more,  50  recitations. 

5  (a).  What  was  the  apparent  purpose  of  the  instructor  in  re- 
peating the  answers  given  by  the  pupils? 

To  emphasize  the  answer,  19;  to  amplify  and  develop  answer, 
12;  to  let  rest  of  class  hear  the  answer,  9;  to  put  answer  in 
better  form,  6;  merely  a  matter  of  habit,  5;  for  criticism  of 
answer  given,  3;  to  introduce  the  next  question,  3;  miscella- 
neous, 12. 

6.  What  fraction  of  the  class  was  called  upon  during  the  recita- 
tion? 

None,  1  recitation;  one-fourth,  19;  one-half,  41;  three- 
fourths,  30;  all,  88  recitations. 

6  (a).  What  fraction  of  the  responses  by  pupils  were  satisfactory 
to  the  instructor? 

None,  1  recitation;  one-half,  48;  three-fourths,  99;  all,  31. 

6  (6).  How  many  failures  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  to  respond 
when  called  upon? 

None,  51  recitations;  one,  27  recitations;  2,  33  recitations; 
3,  23  recitations;  4,  14  recitations;   5  or  more,  31. 

7.  Were  pupils  encouraged  during  the  recitation  to  contribute 
new  material? 

No,  138  recitations;  yes,  41. 

7  (a).  To  express  views  other  than  those  of  the  text-book? 
No,  147  recitations;  yes,  32. 

7  (b).  Were  pupils  required  to  give  facts  supporting  their  an- 
swers? 

No,  136  recitations;  yes,  43. 

134 


8.  What  devices  were  used  by  the  instructor  to  give  concrete ness 
to  the  work  of  the  recitation? 

None,  81  recitations;  objects,  9;  blackboard  illustrations,  36; 
examples,  13;  drawings,  12;  maps,  7;  applications  to  pupils' 
experiences,  21;  specimens,  2;  charts,  2. 

9.  Were  any  connections  made  during  the  recitation  with  other 
school  subjects? 

No,  162  recitations;  yes,  17  recitations. 

9  (a).  Were  any  connections  made  with  other  things  within 
pupils'  experiences? 

No,  129  recitations;  yes,  50. 

The  types  of  connections  made  were:  with  home  life,  6;  with 
diet,  5;  with  village  institutions,  4;  with  plants,  fruits,  and  birds, 
4;   miscellaneous,  occurring  once  each,  39. 

10.  Did  the  instructor  attempt  to  arrive  at  conclusions  during 
the  recitation  for  which  there  was  evident  lack  of  facts  in  the 
possession  of  the  pupils? 

No,  126  recitations;  yes,  53. 

10  (a).  What  did  the  instructor  do? 

Told  the  class,  26  cases;  accepted  indefinite  answers,  9  cases; 
left  the  point  undeveloped,  7  cases ;  turned  to  the  text,  6  cases ; 
given  as  future  problem,  3  cases;   chided  the  class,  2  cases. 

11.  Did  the  recitation  hold  consistently  to  its  purpose  or  was  it 
rambling? 

Consistent,  72  cases;  very  rambling,  27;  rambling  at  times, 
80. 

12.  What  variety  in  procedure  was  used?  l 

The  following  five  points  on  the  conduct  of  the  recitation  treat 
only  the  88  recitations  in  form  or  drill  subjects  or  recitations  in 
other  subjects  on  phases  emphasizing  drill: 
1  See  items  2  and  3,  III. 
iJ5 


13.  Were  the  responses  made  by  members  of  the  class  in  the  main 
accurate  or  inaccurate? 

Accurate,  73  recitations;  inaccurate,  15. 

13  (a).  Were  the  responses  given  by  the  pupils  with  confidence  or 
with  doubt? 
With  confidence,  50  recitations;  with  doubt,  38. 

14.  Were  errors  immediately  checked  up  and  pupils  making  them 
required  to  give  correct  responses? 

Yes,  34  recitations;  no,  54. 

15.  To  what  extent  were  the  corrections  made  contributed  by 
members  of  the  class? 

None  or  less  than  one-half,  34  recitations;  one-half  or  more, 
54. 

16.  Were  the  pupils  given  practice  in  applying  known  facts  and 
principles  to  problems  containing  new  elements? 

Yes,  62  recitations;  no,  26. 

16  (a).  In  miscellaneous  order? 
Yes,  56  recitations;  no,  32. 

17.  What  fraction  of  the  recitation  was  definitely  given  to  drill? 
None,  19  recitations;   one-fourth,  13;   one-half,  28;    all,  28. 

17  (a).  Was  the  drill  "snappy"  or  listless? 
"Snappy,"  30  recitations;  listless,  39. 

17  (b)  Did  the  drill  emphasize  pivotal  points  in  the  work? 
Yes,  37  recitations;  no,  32. 

17  (c).  Was  close  attention  given  to  accuracy? 
Yes,  32;  no,  37. 

17  (d).  Was  attention  given  to  speed? 
Yes,  8;  no,  61. 

136 


17  (e).  To  what  extent  was  time  spent  in  drilling  individual 
pupils  upon  items  apparently  known  to  the  remainder  of  the 
class? 
Fixe  to  10  minutes,  6  cases;  over  ten  minutes,  3  cases. 

IV.  General  Observations  on  the  recitation  as  a  whole. 

1.  Was  the  attitude  of  the  pupils  attentive? 
Yes,  132  recitations;  no,  47. 

1   (a).  Orderly? 

Yes,  134  recitations;   no,  45. 
1   (b).  Indifferent? 

Yes,  57  recitations;   no,  122. 

1  (c).  What  was  the  apparent  cause  of  the  indifference  or  dis- 
orderliness? 

Lack  of  stimulation,  8  cases;  formal,  lifeless  treatment  of  the 
subject,  12;  no  aim  to  the  recitation,  9;  general  spirit  of  the 
school,  5;  lack  of  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  5; 
pupils  uninterested  in  the  subject,  4;  instructor  took  up  all  the 
time,  4;  nothing  for  pupils  to  do,  5;  no  organization  of  the 
work,  2 ;  no  respect  for  the  instructor,  1 . 

2.  Were  desirable  habits  of  work  emphasized?   punctuality  in 
assigned  work? 

Yes,  136  recitations;   no,  43. 

Neatness? 

Yes,  145;  no,  34. 

Thoroughness? 

Yes,  143  recitations;  no,  36. 

Responsibility  on  part  of  pupils? 

Yes,  49;   to  some  degree,  90;   no,  40. 

3.  Were  pupils  in  the  process  of  the  recitation  frequently  inter- 
rupted? 

By  other  pupils? 
Yes,  21  recitations;  no,  138. 
By  the  instructor? 
Yes,  51  recitations;  no,  128. 

i37 


3  (a).  What  was  the  apparent  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
structor? 

To  make  corrections,  16  recitations;  to  ward  off  incorrect  an- 
swers, 7;  to  complete  answers,  8;  to  make  fickle  remarks,  9; 
to  stimulate  to  study,  3;  to  insist  upon  accuracy,  2;  to  hurry 
up  pupils,  2;  to  interpret  answers,  2;  to  exhort  pupils,  2. 

4.  What  fraction  of  the  recitation  was  consumed  by  the  instructor 
talking? 

Practically  none,  11  recitations;  one-fourth,  78;  one- half,  51; 
three-fourths  or  more,  39. 

4  (a).  To  what  end? 

Keep  the  recitation  moving,  8  cases;  elaborate  upon  the  pupil's 
replies,  22;  to  make  corrections,  19;  to  give  directions,  24;  to 
give  explanations,  34;  to  supply  information,  13;  to  draw  out 
pupils,  4;  to  criticize  pupils,  4;  to  give  rambling  dissertations, 
4;   to  interpret,  2. 

5.  What  fraction  of  the  recitation  did  the  instructor  remain 
seated  at  his  desk? 

None,  126  recitations;  one-fourth,  3;  one-half,  9;  three- 
fourths,  5;  the  whole  time,  36. 

6.  Did  the  instructor  give  evidence  of  adequate  preparation  for 
the  lesson? 

Yes,  149  recitations;  no,  30. 

The  pupils? 

Yes,  122  recitations;  no,  57. 

7.  What  use  did  the  instructor  make  of  the  text-book? 

The  only  guide  for  the  recitation,  55  recitations;  sole  basis  for 
the  assignment,  132;  the  guide  for  questions,  34;  read  from 
the  text-book,  13;  referred  to  the  text-book  as  the  authority,  7. 

8.  What  fraction  of  the  class  were  kept  occupied  during  the  re- 
citation? 

None,  6  recitations;  one-fourth,  34;  one-half,  20;  three- 
fourths,  14;   all,  103. 

138 


9.  Were  the  Regents  mentioned  in  the  conduct  of  the  recitation? 
Yes,  29  recitations;  no,  150. l 

9  (a).  How? 

Regents  Review  books  used  as  basis  of  preceding  assignment, 
17  cases;  basis  of  questions  asked  in  recitation,  9;  to  stimu- 
late study,  2. 

10.  What  points  in  the  recitation  stood  out  in  the  mind  of  the 
observer  as  having  been  adequately  developed  during  the 
recitation? 

One  or  more  points,  124  recitations;  none,  55  recitations. 

1 1 .  In  the  opinion  of  the  observer  what  was  the  strongest  feature 
of  the  recitation?  the  weakest? 

The  strongest  feature  as  reported  by  the  observers: 
Insistence  upon  accuracy  and  thoroughness,  40  recitations; 
stimulating  the  interest  of  the  pupils,  19;  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  instructor  for  his  work,  21;  good  class  discussions,  16; 
skill  in  conducting  drill,  14;  skill  in  the  development  of  the 
lesson,  10;  good  organization  of  the  recitation,  14;  use  of 
the  pupils'  experiences,  8;  skilful  emphasis  upon  pivotal 
points  in  the  lesson,  7;  instructor's  mastery  of  the  subject, 
7;  the  patient,  sympathetic  attitude  of  the  instructor,  6; 
a  good  assignment,  6. 

The  weakest  feature  as  reported  by  the  observers: 

"Teacher  did  everything,"  29  recitations;  no  phases  of  the 
lesson  given  any  particular  emphasis,  14;  no  organization  of 
the  lesson  material,  14;  entire  lack  of  responsibility  upon  the 
part  of  the  pupils,  22;  dead,  formal  treatment  of  the  subject- 
matter,  12;  treatment  of  a  great  mass  of  details  in  unre- 
lated fashion,  9;  listless  catechism,  5. 

Other  weakest  features  reported  a  few  times  each  were:  em- 
phasis upon  the  mere  acquisition  of  facts;  no  definite  aim 
or  objectives;  teacher  did  all  the  thinking;  pupils  spoke  in 
very  low  and  indistinct  tones;  short,  fragmentary  answers; 
poorer  pupils  neglected ;  poor  assignment ;  no  guiding  prob- 
lems; many  inaccuracies;  rambling  diffuseness;  lack  of  defi- 
nite accomplishment;  and  bookish  abstractions. 

1  These  figures  are  exclusive  of  those  given  in  reference  to  the  assignment. 

139 


V.  Critical  Comments 

The  critical  comments  made  by  the  several  observers  add  but 
little  to  the  material  already  gained  but  rather  emphasize  the  main 
characteristics  as  indicated  in  the  preceding  divisions  of  the  obser- 
vations. The  most  frequent  critical  comments  were :  the  presenta- 
tion was  formal;  there  was  lack  of  definite  organization  of  subject- 
matter  and  of  procedure;  there  was  no  definite  aim  to  the  teaching; 
the  attitude  of  the  pupil  was  that  of  indifference;  the  work  of  the 
class  room  was  slow  and  listless;  the  work  of  instruction  was  ab- 
stract and  bookish ;  no  emphasis  was  given  to  any  particular  topics 
or  problems;  there  was  a  failure  to  clinch  the  points  made;  the 
pupils  showed  lack  of  initiative ;  no  responsibility  was  thrown  upon 
the  pupils;  mere  text-book  work;  there  was  no  supplementary 
reading. 

General  Summary  of  Class-room  Teaching 
Class  Routine. — With  regard  to  class  routine  the  following  were 
the  outstanding  characteristics  as  reported  by  the  observers.  The 
high  school  instructors  observed  wasted  practically  no  time  in  begin- 
ning the  work  of  the  recitation,  approximately  57  percent  entering 
immediately  into  the  work.  Another  37  percent  spent  three  minutes 
or  less  in  getting  ready  for  the  lesson.  In  57  percent  of  the  recita- 
tions no  materials  other  than  the  text-book  were  used.  In  the  80 
recitations  where  other  materials  were  employed,  they  were  sys- 
tematically and  economically  handled  in  85  percent  of  the  cases.  In 
61  percent  of  the  recitations  the  conditions  were  favorable  for  work, 
and  in  24  percent  they  were  decidedly  unfavorable.  In  15  percent 
of  the  recitations  the  conditions  for  work  were  fair,  with  hindering 
features. 

Assignment  and  Study  Guidance. — There  was  considerable 
variation  in  the  practice  of  the  instructors  observed  as  to  the  time  of 
making  the  assignment.  The  most  common  practice  was  to  make 
it  at  the  end  of  the  recitation  period,  this  being  done  in  55  percent  of 
the  recitations.  The  next  most  common  place  was  at  the  beginning 
of  the  recitation,  where  it  was  made  in  approximately  29  percent  of 
the  cases.  One  of  the  most  striking  facts  with  respect  to  the  assign- 
ment was  the  little  time  given  to  it.    Only  one  minute  or  less  was 

140 


given  to  it  in  48  percent  of  the  recitations  observed.  In  35  percent 
of  the  recitations  the  time  devoted  to  the  making  of  the  assignment 
was  from  one  to  five  minutes.  In  only  28  percent  was  the  assign- 
ment taken  by  the  pupils  in  any  written  form,  while  in  16  percent  it 
was  checked  in  the  text-book  and  in  56  percent  no  record  of  the 
assignment  was  made  by  the  pupils.  In  57  percent  of  the  recitations 
the  assignment  made  was  vague  and  indefinite;  in  approximately 
73  percent  it  was  practically  unmotivated.  In  25  percent  of  the 
recitations  where  there  was  motivation,  the  motive  for  study  was 
the    impending     Regents    examinations.      Including    motivation 


Diagram  14. — Time  given  to  the  making  of  the  assignment  of  lessons.    Percent 
of  the  179  recitations  studied 


through  local  school  examinations,  the  motivation  was  attempted 
through  mention  of  examinations  in  28  percent  of  the  recitations 
observed. 

In  73  percent  of  the  cases  the  assignment  was  made  in  pages  of 
the  text-book  only.  Fifty-nine  percent  of  the  assignments  were 
made  with  no  guidance  in  the  way  of  suggesting  methods  of  attack, 
suggesting  guiding  topics,  or  by  calling  attention  to  important  prob- 
lems. Only  rarely  did  the  pupils  enter  into  the  making  of  the 
assignment  by  suggesting  problems  and  topics  of  interest  to  them. 
In  only  5  percent  of  the  assignments  observed  were  references  given 

141 


to  supplementary  reading.  Differentiation  as  to  work  for  individuals 
or  groups  was  made  in  the  assignment  in  3  percent  of  the  recitations. 

All  data  on  the  assignment  indicate  that  it  is  one  of  the  weak 
features  in  the  class-room  work  in  the  rural  high  school.  While  a 
few  instructors  used  it  as  a  vital  part  of  the  teaching  process,  as  a 
means  of  directing  and  stimulating  interest  in  the  work  to  be  done, 
in  the  greater  proportion  of  instances  it  consisted  in  indicating 
briefly  the  gross  limits  within  which  the  task  for  the  following  day 
lay.  It  was  vague  and  indefinite.  In  the  main  it  was  not  made  in 
sufficient  detail  to  orientate  or  direct  the  pupils  either  through 
guiding  topics  or  through  the  suggestion  of  vital  problems  tending 
to  stimulate  their  intellectual  curiosity. 

The  Conduct  of  the  Recitation. — In  the  conduct  of  the  recita- 
tion as  concerned  the  lesson  previously  assigned  there  was  much 
variation  of  method,  with  certain  predominant  characteristics.  In 
55  percent  of  the  classes  the  aim  of  the  lesson  was  fairly  definite  and 
in  45  percent  it  was  vague  and  indefinite,  in  26  percent  of  the  cases 
being  so  indefinite  as  to  be  unrecognizable  by  the  observer.  In  the 
majority  of  the  recitations  the  aim  of  the  lesson  was  remote  and 
formal. 

The  four  most  frequent  types  of  lessons  observed  were  in  the 
order  of  frequency:  review  of  preceding  work,  prominent  in  46  per- 
cent of  the  lessons;  the  catechizing  on  the  lesson  assigned  for  the 
day,  used  in  45  percent  of  the  recitations;  the  development  type,  a 
prominent  feature  in  28  percent;  and  the  drill  type,  occurring  in 
24  percent  of  the  lessons  observed.1 

The  procedure  or  method  of  attack  was  varied,  more  than  one 
procedure  being  used  during  a  lesson  period  in  the  majority  of 
classes.  The  methods  of  attack  used  were  in  the  order  of  their  fre- 
quency: question  and  answer,  blackboard  work,  telling  or  lectur- 
ing, topical  discussion,  seat  work,  reading  of  the  text  accompanied 
by  discussion,  demonstration  and  laboratory,  criticism  of  work  pre- 
viously prepared  by  the  class,  oral  drill,  translation,  class  reports, 
and  taking  notes  and  dictation.   The  question  and  answer  procedure 

1  In  most  cases  the  recitation  was  not  a  pure  type,  but  during  the  lesson  period 
changed  from  one  type  to  another,  so  that  most  recitations  represented  at  least 
two  types. 

142 


was  the  outstanding  method,  being  a  prominent  feature  of  76  per- 
cent of  the  recitations  observed.  Blackboard  work  was  second  in 
frequency,  occurring  in  practically  one-third  of  the  cases.  The  tell- 
ing or  lecture  method  of  attack  was  used  by  instructors  to  a  great 
extent  in  27  percent  of  the  recitations.  Topical  discussion  and  class 
reports  were  employed  in  15  and  6  percent  respectively. 

The  questions  used  by  the  instructors  were  about  equally  divided 
between  the  thought  stimulating  and  the  memory  types.  In  ap- 
proximately 35  percent  of  the  recitations,  many  questions  of  the 
"yes  or  no "  type  were  used.  Approximately  40  percent  of  the  ques- 
tions used  were  clear  and  definite.  A  small  proportion  of  the  ques- 
tions suggested  their  own  answers;  some  were  stereotyped  in  form; 
and  approximately  three  percent  of  the  instructors  answered  their 
own  questions  without  giving  the  pupils  an  opportunity  to  respond. 
Thirty  percent  of  the  instructors  repeated  the  answers  given  by 
pupils  to  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the  questions  asked.  In  50 
percent  of  the  classes  observed  all  the  pupils  were  called  upon,  while 
in  29  percent  only  one-half  or  fewer  of  the  pupils  in  the  class  were 
given  an  opportunity  to  recite. 

During  the  recitation,  in  only  40  percent  of  the  classes  were  pupils 
encouraged  to  contribute  new  material.  In  35  percent  of  the  classes 
the  pupils  were  permitted  to  express  views  other  than  those  of  the 
text.  In  60  percent  of  the  recitations  pupils  were  not  required  to 
give  definite  facts  supporting  their  answers  to  questions  asked. 

The  formal  nature  of  much  of  the  instruction  observed  is  indi- 
cated by  the  following  facts:  In  45  percent  of  the  recitations  no 
devices  were  used  to  give  concreteness  to  the  class-room  work.  Ob- 
jects were  employed  in  five  percent  of  the  classes;  maps  in  approxi- 
mately four  percent;  and  specimens  and  charts  in  three  percent  of 
the  recitations.  Eighty-nine  percent  of  the  recitations  contained 
no  references  to  other  school  subjects  and  72  percent  made  no  con- 
nections with  other  things  within  the  pupils'  experience. 

In  the  teaching  of  form  or  drill  subjects,  or  form  phases  of  other 
subjects,  88  recitations  were  observed.  In  practically  83  percent 
the  responses  made  by  the  pupils  were  in  the  main  accurate  and  in 
17  percent  of  the  classes  inaccurate.  In  approximately  57  percent 
the  responses  were  given  by  the  pupils  with  confidence  and  in  43 

143 


percent  with  doubt.  In  38  percent  of  the  recitations,  when  errors 
were  made  in  the  replies  of  pupils,  they  were  immediately  checked 
up  and  the  pupil  who  made  the  error  was  required  to  make  the  cor- 
rect response;  in  the  other  62  percent  the  pupil  was  left,  having 
made  only  the  incorrect  response.  In  38  percent  of  the  recitations, 
one-half  or  fewer  of  the  corrections  were  made  by  members  of  the 
class.  The  pupils  were  given  practice  in  applying  known  facts  and 
principles  to  problems  containing  new  elements  in  70  percent  of  the 
88  classes  and  to  new  elements  in  miscellaneous  order  in  63  percent. 
In  56  percent  of  the  recitations  in  which  all  or  a  portion  of  the  period 
was  devoted  definitely  to  drill,  the  drill  work  was  listless;  in  the 
other  44  percent  it  was  "snappy."  In  46  percent  of  the  form  type 
of  lessons  observed  with  time  definitely  given  to  drill  accuracy  was 
stressed  while  speed  was  given  attention  in  less  than  1 1  percent  of 
the  classes.  In  approximately  54  percent  of  the  classes  with  definite 
drill  work  pivotal  points  in  the  lesson  were  emphasized.  In  general 
the  recognized  principles  of  teaching  the  form  or  drill  subjects  were 
little  followed  by  the  rural  high  school  instructors  observed. 

General  Observations. — Under  the  heading  "general  observa- 
tions" the  observers  of  high  school  instruction  gave  attention  to  the 
broader  and  more  comprehensive  phases  of  the  recitation,  those 
things  which  characterized  it  as  a  unit  of  the  educative  process.  The 
following  give  the  main  points  as  reported:  The  attitude  of 
the  pupils  was  attentive  in  approximately  74  percent  of  the 
classes  observed  and  inattentive  and  indifferent  in  26  percent.  In 
one-fourth  of  the  recitations  the  pupils  were  disorderly.  The  most 
frequent  causes  given  by  the  observers  for  the  disorderliness  and 
indifference  were :  formal,  lifeless  treatment  of  the  subject;  lack  of 
stimulation;  lack  of  aim  to  the  recitation;  nothing  for  the  pupils  to 
do;  instructor  took  up  all  the  time;  and  lack  of  preparation  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils. 

Desirable  habits  of  work  were  not  emphasized  in  a  rather  large 
proportion  of  the  classes.  Punctuality  in  preparing  the  work  of  the 
assignment  was  not  required  in  24  percent  of  the  classes;  neatness 
of  work  was  neglected  in  19  percent,  thoroughness  was  lacking  in 
20  percent;  and  in  22  percent  of  the  classes  observed  no  responsi- 
bility was  thrown  upon  the  pupil.    In  50  percent  of  the  recitations, 

144 


from  one-half  to  three-fourths  or  more  of  the  period  was  taken  up  by 
the  teacher  talking.  In  66  percent  of  the  recitations  the  instructor 
gave  evidences  of  preparation  for  the  classroom  work,  and  in  the 
other  34  percent  he  had  apparently  made  little  or  no  preparation. 
The  pupils  were  well  prepared  in  69  percent  of  the  classes  and  un- 
prepared in  31  percent.  All  the  pupils  were  kept  occupied  in  57  per- 
cent of  the  classes,  while  in  22  percent  one-fourth  or  fewer  were  kept 
occupied  throughout  the  recitation.  In  over  30  percent  of  the  reci- 
tations no  important  points  in  the  lesson  stood  out  in  the  mind  of 
the  observer  as  having  been  adequately  developed,  the  work  main- 
taining a  dead  level  throughout  the  class  period. 

Many  instances  of  teaching  strong  in  certain  respects  were  noted. 
The  most  frequently  mentioned  strong  features  of  class-room  work 
as  reported  were:  insistence  upon  accuracy  and  thoroughness; 
stimulating  the  interest  of  the  pupils;  the  enthusiasm  of  the  instruc- 
tor for  his  work;  good  class  discussions;  and  skill  in  conducting 
drill.  Other  strong  features  not  so  frequently  mentioned  were: 
skill  in  the  development  of  the  lesson;  good  organization  of  the 
recitation;  skilful  emphasis  upon  pivotal  points  in  the  lesson;  skill 
in  the  making  of  the  assignment;  instructor's  mastery  of  his  sub- 
ject; use  of  pupils' experiences;  and  the  patient,  sympathetic  atti- 
tude of  the  instructor. 

The  most  common  weak  features  of  the  work  in  the  class  room 
were:  "  the  teacher  did  every  thing  " ;  no  phases  of  the  lesson  given 
particular  emphasis:  no  organization  of  the  lesson  material  as  a 
teaching  unit;  lack  of  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  pupils;  dead, 
formal  treatment  of  subject-matter;  the  treatment  of  a  great  mass 
of  details  in  unrelated  fashion;   and  listless  questioning. 

In  conclusion,  the  following  are  some  of  the  most  prominent  char- 
acteristics of  the  instruction  as  observed  in  the  rural  high  schools. 
In  the  main  the  teachers  showed  a  conscientious,  earnest  attitude 
toward  their  work.  Many  instances  of  teaching  strong  in  certain 
respects  were  found.  As  a  whole,  however,  the  work  of  the  class 
room  was  of  a  formal,  abstract  type.  Few  supplementary  materials 
were  used  in  the  way  either  of  readings  or  of  devices  to  make  teach- 
ing more  concrete.  But  little  use  was  made  of  the  sources  in  the 
community  available  to  the  pupils.  In  the  main  the  work  lacked 
io  145 


definiteness  and  immediacy  of  aim,  no  real  objectives  standing  out 
as  the  goals  to  be  attained.  Almost  no  use  was  made  of  the  assign- 
ment as  an  integral  part  of  the  teaching  process.  The  major  part 
of  the  work  might  be  characterized  as  informational,  with  emphasis 
upon  the  memorizing  of  a  mass  of  material.  Finally,  the  teaching  on 
the  whole  was  not  of  a  type  to  stimulate  pupils  to  initiative,  to 
originality,  to  the  evaluation  of  materials,  or  to  the  assuming  of  per- 
sonal responsibility  for  results. 


146 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  CURRICULUM 

Section  1 . — The  Existing  Curricula 

THE  first  part  of  the  study  of  curriculum  is  devoted  to  the 
existing  curricula  in  the  rural  high  schools  of  the  State. 
The  data  used  as  the  basis  for  this  phase  of  the  study  were 
derived  from  two  sources:  (1)  statistics  and  reports  of  the  State 
Department  of  Education;  and  (2)  reports  coming  directly  from 
principals  of  rural  high  schools.  The  first  question  considered  is 
that  of  the  present  curriculum  offerings. 

Subjects  Offered  in  the  Rural  High  School. — The  report  of 
609  rural  high  schools  to  the  State  Department  for  1919-20  shows 
that  practically  all  schools  gave  a  year  of  English  for  each  year  of 
work  offered  and  that  53  percent  of  them  offered  a  course  in  English 
grammar  and  4.3  percent  a  course  in  the  history  of  English  litera- 
ture. Ninety-five  percent  of  the  schools  gave  first  year  Latin;  93 
percent  second  year  Latin;  56  percent  third-year  Latin;  and  34 
percent  fourth-year  Latin.  Seventy-five  percent  gave  French  I, 
69  percent  French  II,  and  over  13  percent  French  III.  Ten  per- 
cent offered  Spanish  I  and  eight  percent  Spanish  II.  Practically 
all  schools  gave  elementary  algebra;  65  percent  intermediate 
algebra;  12  percent  advanced  algebra;  88  percent  plane  geometry; 
21  percent  solid  geometry;  and  ten  percent  trigonometry.  Over  91 
percent  of  the  schools  gave  elementary  biology;  69  percent  gave 
physics;  and  24  percent  chemistry.  Physical  geography  was 
offered  by  over  17  percent  of  the  schools  and  general  science  by 
three  percent. 

Seventy-eight  percent  of  the  schools  gave  ancient  history;  36 
percent  the  history  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  eight  percent 
modern  history;  76  percent  American  history;  and  over  88  percent 

147 


OwOOX3>fNiO-*XC- 


ilO^CONTfOMN^X^N^ 


^f  i-h  Tfl^  rt  «  -h  «  _  fsi  ^  —i 


-1  c. 


■/I    t« 


■"  *J  S3 

3  a  o 


*J     u     U.  I— I 

'E  o  O^ 
^  .2  .Is  c 

'    •     :  C  L 


00    C~     >     ^Tr       ' 


So. 2 


c  c 


XX 


da 

^  -S.>  8.S-5  111  l"l||  £i» 


M  S  i?  to  o,   . 
|flP| OH 

aj     .   >    O   u  r 

-i!-o°^  to 


9  "2  S 
o  c  > 


OX^-<Cw;'HO\'HW;^tCTt'OOXM^O"1'HN!>(NfOXO< 

c?-r^d^^^'^tN\0'*''ic'>w;MrtTiif^dxdo'trtX'-<a;o6 

^^OiX")        {>  :>  >0  <*5  t-»  O  *-i  i-h  Os  O  <-i  3C  c-i        vO 


_'  o  o 

O  "l  "")  "}  ^         i/)  i^,  r^  N  ■*  Tt"  O^         lOi— i         rj< 


COXX»^OOOOOO0\(N*Oi';iO0ifyO00N«)HM* 
XXNt^rf^XXfOM'ii'JM  N«Nh         00  •<*  O  "*  ■*  CN  -^ 


CO"".hXNMON";I^NOvO 
"/  »i  r«  «)  i-i        OXINOOMN 
K)")(SNH  CO  CN  i-H  tN  >-i 


■  (N  IT,  rt  Ol  <t  ON 

ro  i— i  CN  i-l 


C3  ._ 

a 


id 


to 


.c  j=  js  .c 


to  to  to  to 


—  o 


a  "  ■ 
o  eu  2 
«   to  fe 


bh 


CCCCC.-rtrt 

KWWWWShW 


_i£i=:£'~""H'~''-|h-<>-|.2''312 

c  c  c_c_c_e'£  w  o 

jcc  .c  -C  rt  ed  ca  "55 1/5  "In  £  g  c 

fi,fe^itiH^;oOc^ic^ic/)WHH-< 


tititi'ti4J<1Jll'<w 


E  « 

o  g 

A  o 

^  c 

?5  to  r 

"3  >  J5 


Ph  t/2 


148 


»-<t^;O'--tN<NvC'0 

10  "">  cn  »-<  0\  r-i  re  rri 

<—                  pn 

-HU-jsCOOvOrffNi^ 

PO  PO  •-1  O  iO  ■«*<  CS  ~t 

~ 

N>ih.NCO^C 

t-<  -h          CSIN(N          u~« 

N  0>  00  O  "5  t^  00  ^ 

«-i  ~h         rrj  es  »^         ^ 

t^lO^H— >-it^io-)> 

1-1     T-<                                 CN 

•  P— 1   k/         • 

■   >— c    i— 1   K*         • 

l-M   H—   i^      L        ^        .         .         C 

1— i  l— i  i— l  tc  tx  tc  tc.h 

„...„.  c  c  c  c  sx 
i:  5j  ►< MMMM'S 

w3i  ^  ^  "  rtt/) 

-r^^EEEE-^ 
p  p  p  y  o  o  o  3 

.y.y.B  fl  cj  2  a  c 

E    C    u    C    g    C    C    o 

££  tc  fc£  O    O    O    C  _C 

'',iOfO'^d'0'^,» 

"trHrtO^rtlflNN 

<M           O                                  i-H 

WaCNXNOON 

■rp         ir}         cn  ~*  r^;  O  -h 

t— i          IT}                                  — 

«—  CN1  *+      •  ■*      'OCrf 

O         On      ■             •         fN 

^t(NO\        ■  OC  f;  X  O  (N 

iO        v©      ■                    PO 

")  "1  f^  PI  o  o>  PJ  o  ^ 

PO          C\          »-i          NU",-h 

C^l 

>. 

X  c  o 

>>   ! 

a 

iolog 
Bota 

Zool 

"o.  ! 
2  8 

«>>>.. 

8.2 

b0 

«_i  _.           w   *j   <j    o  — 

«j  "d  >%  y  c  c  t?  s  "3 

"3  .u  ^  c  B  B.9.S  & 

C  ^     O     rt     g     g  '3i  '7;     1) 

i3  a.2  -5  JS  £  2£  g 

U 

<« 

<K^C 

OhO 

2  tc>> 
ed  .5  •- 

<D    u    C 

C    o    "-1 


5-5  S 


->  o  o 

u,  .2  c 
o  to  -c 

>H     J      0) 

•  o  o 
111 

•a  °£ 
^« » 

0"5  o 

5  a  « 

p    P    M 

Pp5 

3  °  O 

c~  8 

_    <u    J- 

rt   X   o 

2  S  « 

o-°  > 

.22  £ 

5  M  « 

1    £     » 

3-5    3 

C  4)  .22 

o    rt    rt 

8  c-o 

rt   fccH 
+■;  1>    •  (J 

8  M  i.° 
2*-S  "Sic 

«  °  £  <" 

_    d    O    1- 

o  2  ^  .2 


id   t  M    — 


"3 

a  c  p  .c 
o  p  >-.  - 
js  "t;  -^  ■■« 

r-  *-  -O   1. 

M    >-    C    3 

- 1  If- 

C   tr.    O 


149 


gave  civics.  Three  percent  gave  economics,  and  none  offered 
sociology.  Commercial  subjects,  such  as  commercial  arithmetic, 
geography,  elementary  bookkeeping,  shorthand,  typewriting,  and 
business  writing,  were  offered  in  from  15  to  25  percent  of  the  schools. 
Approximately  one-half  of  the  schools  gave  courses  in  drawing  and 
19  percent  offered  mechanical  drawing.  Agriculture  was  taught  in 
eight  percent  of  the  schools  and  homemaking  in  11  percent. 

Required  Subjects. — Three  hundred  and  eighty-five  schools 
reported  as  to  the  subjects  required  of  all  pupils.     All  of  those 


Table  63.— 

Subjects  Required  of  All  Pupils  as  Reported 

BY  THE 

Princi- 

pals  of  385  Rural  High  Schools 

Per- 

1-49 

cent 

pupils 

exclud- 

Type of 

less 
than 

1-49 

pupils 

50-99 

100-149 

150  or 
more 

Total 

Per- 
cent 

ing 
schools 

schools 

4  years 

4  year 

pupils 

pupils 

pupils 

of 

doing 

of 

schools 

total 

less 

H.  S. 

than 

work 

4  years' 
work 

Eng.  (each 

year) .... 

52 

159 

106 

45 

23 

385 

100.0 

100.0 

Latin  I .  .  .  . 

31 

78 

21 

11 

141 

36.6 

33.0 

Latin  II .  .  . 

27 

75 

21 

9 

132 

34.3 

31.5 

Latin  III .  . 

20 

4 

24 

6.2 

7.2 

Latin  IV..  . 

10 

4 

14 

3.6 

4.2 

French  I . . . 

15 

56 

15 

8 

94 

24.4 

23.7 

French  II. 

12 

55 

15 

7 

89 

23.1 

23.1 

Ele.    Alge- 

bra  

51 

159 

105 

41 

21 

377 

97.9 

97.9 

Int.    Alge- 

bra  

7 

26 

9 

6 

3 

51 

13.2 

13.2 

Plane    Ge- 

ometry. . 

43 

154 

102 

41 

21 

361 

93.8 

95.5 

Ancient 

History. . 

29 

101 

56 

15 

11 

212 

55.0 

54.9 

Modern 

History. . 

9 

30 

18 

3 

2 

62 

16.1 

15.9 

American 

History. . 

20 

159 

106 

45 

23 

353 

91.7 

100.0 

Civics 

44 

150 

106 

44 

22 

366 

95.1 

96.7 

Biology. . .  . 

48 

156 

104 

37 

19 

364 

94.5 

94.9 

Botany. . . . 

1 

1 

0.3 

Physics. .  .  . 

10 

120 

63 

20 

11 

224 

58.2 

64.2 

Chemistry . 

5 

5 

1.3 

1.5 

ISO 


replying  required  English  each  year.  Almost  37  percent  required 
Latin  I  and  over  34  percent  Latin  II.  A  small  number  of  schools 
required  Latin  III  and  IV.  About  one-fourth  of  the  schools 
required  two  years  of  French.  Ninety-eight  percent  of  the  schools 
reporting  required  elementary  algebra;  13  percent  intermediate 
algebra;  and  94  percent  plane  geometry.  Ancient  history  was  a 
required  subject  in  55  percent  of  the  schools;  modern  history  in  16 
percent;  American  history  in  92  percent,  and  civics  in  95  percent. 
Biology  was  required  by  95  percent  of  the  schools,  physics  by  58 
percent,  chemistry  by  1.3  percent  and  botany  by  one  school. 

Excluding  from  the  total  number  of  schools  reporting  the  52 
schools  doing  less  than  four  years  of  high  school  work,  and  comput- 
ing the  percentages  on  the  basis  of  the  333  four-year  schools,  changes 
the  percentages  but  little.  It  lowers  the  percentages  in  Latin  I 
and  Latin  II,  approximately  3  percent  each,  and  increases  slightly 
the  percentages  in  respect  to  Latin  III  and  IV.  The  percentage 
requiring  physics  is  raised  from  58  percent  to  64  percent.  All  the 
four-year  schools  required  American  history  and  practically  all  re- 
quired civics. 

Subjects  Offered  as  Electives  in  385  Rural  High  Schools. 
— The  same  schools  reporting  on  subjects  offered  as  electives  show 
that  beyond  the  more  formal  subjects  usually  regarded  as  college 
preparatory  there  is  little  or  no  opportunity  for  election  in  the  rural 
high  schools.  A  pupil  who  does  not  expect  to  go  to  college  cannot 
get  in  the  rural  high  school,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  subjects  of 
more  immediate  value  to  him  than  those  taught  primarily  to  satisfy 
college  requirements.  The  electives  are  in  the  main  in  the  foreign 
languages,  in  advanced  mathematics,  in  physics  and  chemistry, 
and  in  ancient  and  modern  European  history.  Approximately 
four  percent  of  the  385  schools  reporting  offered  economics  as  an 
elective,  18  percent  offered  commercial  arithmetic  and  commercial 
geography.  Seven  percent  offered  mechanical  drawing  and  14 
percent  elementary  drawing.  Other  subjects  mainly  of  the  com- 
mercial type  were  offered  by  a  small  proportion  of  schools.  Agricul- 
ture and  homemaking  were  offered  by  10  and  9  percent  respectively 
of  the  schools  reporting. 

151 


»-\qco^oq0^r-]CCcoe>CCN--©cr;  c  c  ";  C  O  O  u-,  Ooqi^OoCp't^ 


-4  «  > 


CXfCO^i^-tNOiO't"'.  "-"CSNf;      ■  -^i  c;  co  co  u"~,  fN  CN 


52 


■/O  Tf  (M       ■  t^  M  X 


O  M^CNOv 


MOMaNCO'-lf)l'"j,*'t'*fO' 


a  — 


O  u".  (N  ™  OC  t^  ^  fC  X  (^  '-"- 


pq 


.2    & 
X 


>>  >^  >. 


<u  a, 

5  t- 
-d  to 


--hS  ££  £f  bo  >>£ 
*  rt  —  _  c  £  d  -d  fe  _'  H 


S  o"  & 

a  so 
c  s  1 1  -s .« 

.y  _,__,_,   Co   d   d   SX^!j5^   S   to  o  .3  .S   d   rt   "J 

I|||l8ili||§8&|l||"||| 


^    HH    >_|    ^J 


HHHM     O     O     O     O 

D<ua)<y5ddd 

>_Ui>-.^OoOO 

Cdddd(i)fl)aiaj 

<"u.yyycddd 
d  C  S  C  C  d  d  d  d 

■a  a  a  be  tc  o  o  o  o 
-2,<  <<<ffiBW!U 


*r        co  "5  '—i  cc    ~ 


Oh 


-h  O  CN 


■*    't   O    H    Tf  Tf    N   Ifl   ^  CT)    CO    *— I    Tj<  O00»-Ht^'^H'*'^T-I^H^H-^1  «- I    C*5 


!NMN(N(NNrt 


o-o 

>r>   c   > 


"5  "5  f)  f)  ")  "5  00  rH  rn         ^"•>tNrtiHC(NCcootNOOO(N'-i'-<'H 


^3 


i 


3rd 

_  a  a 


-  -Q    ^    £ 

e  -T        bo*-;  £ 

_  s  :  s  :?  c  ^ 

J5  .d  _d    d    d    - 
tn  tfi  c/3  rt  cti 

'£'£'£  £  £ 


2J 


Oa 


^52 


w  IJTJ  5  u  £  ^     •  i  •     •—     - 

scE^TH^jEogo'So 
MSa>  £•-  £  ^u-tjS'B  5,-g- 


bb 


XX 


--aaUMMNA*EU< 


°  X3  HH  >""! 


152 


Percent  of  Pupil's  Time  Devoted  to  Various  Subjects. — 
A  study  of  184  rural  high  schools  chosen  at  random  from  the  schools 
of  each  class  on  the  basis  of  number  of  pupils  enrolled  indicates  that 
on  the  average  the  pupil's  time  and  energy  are  given  in  approxi- 
mately the  following  percents  to  the  various  subjects.  These  per- 
cents  are  computed  on  the  basis  of  all  pupils  actually  enrolled  in 
each  subject  in  the  184  schools,  taking  into  account  the  number  of 
periods  given  each  subject  per  week  and  estimating  each  pupil's 
program  as  being  four  subjects  a  day.  These  percentages  do  not 
show  the  variation  among  different  schools  but  do  undoubtedly 
indicate  approximately  the  relative  amount  of  emphasis  given  the 
various  subjects  in  the  rural  high  schools  as  a  whole. 

Percentage  of  pupil's  time  given  to  various  subjects  throughout 

the  high  school  course: 

Percent 

English 23.67 

Latin 13.01 

French 6.74 

Spanish 0.89 

Mathematics 17.68 

Physical  sciences  (physics  and  chemistry) 2.91 

Physical  geography 0.70 

Biological  sciences  (biology,  botany,  zoology,  physiology) .  .      7.66 

Foreign  history 5.86 

American  history  and  civics 6.01 

Economics 0.06 

Sociology 

Study  of  occupations 

Agriculture 1.30 

Homemaking 1 .67 

Mechanical  drawing,  wood-turning,  machine  shop 0.48 

Commercial  subjects 5.99 

Miscellaneous  subjects 5.37 

The  above  data  indicate  that  on  the  average  over  44  percent  of 
the  pupil's  time  is  given  to  the  study  of  languages  including  English, 
or  almost  21  percent  excluding  English.  In  other  words,  over  one- 
fifth  of  all  the  time  the  rural  boy  or  girl  spends  in  high  school  is 
devoted  to  the  study  of  a  foreign  language.  Almost  18  percent  of 
his  time  is  given  to  mathematics  as  compared  with  11.27  percent 
given  to  all  the  other  sciences.  In  other  words,  he  gives  more  time 
to  the  study  of  mathematics  than  he  gives  to  the  natural  sciences 
and  the  social  sciences,  including  American  history  and  civics,  but 

i53 


Agriculture 
Home- making 
Machineshop  etc 


/Miscellaneous 
/        Subjects 


Diagram  15. — Percent  of  pupil's  time  given  to  various  subjects  throughout  the 
high  school  course 


excluding  foreign  history.  He  gives  as  much  time  to  the  study  of 
foreign  languages  as  he  gives  to  natural  sciences,  agriculture  and 
the  social  sciences,  excluding  foreign  history. 

Activities  Engaged  in  by  Recent  Rural  High  School  Grad- 
uates.— Another  angle  from  which  to  judge  the  curriculum  of  the 
rural  high  school  is  through  a  study  of  the  activities  in  which  its 
graduates  engage.  This  question  was  asked  of  the  high  school 
principals  and  270  replied  in  detail.  This  item  gives  the  type  of 
activity  engaged  in  in  the  spring  of  1921  by  2,683  graduates  of  the 
two  preceding  years.  Combining  the  figures  for  the  two  years 
shows  that  approximately  two  percent  were  married.  Five  and 
four-tenths  percent  were  at  home,  18.2  percent  teaching  in  rural 
schools,  11.7  percent  in  business,  1.9  percent  nursing,  2.3  percent 
in  the  trades,  and  3.5  percent  farming.  Practically  28  percent 
were  in  college,  22.5  percent  in  a  normal  school,  and  4.5  percent 
were  engaged  in  various  other  types  of  activities. 

154 


Table  65. — Activities  Engaged  in  in  1921  by  2,683  Rural  High  School 
Graduates  of  1919  and  1920,  as  Reported  by  the  Principal 


Type  of  activity 


In  college 

In  normal  school 

Teaching 

In  business 

At  home 

Farming 

In  a  trade 

Married 

Nursing 

Miscellaneous.  . 


Schools  with  1-99 

Schools  with  100  or 

pupils 

more  pupils 

Grand 
total 

1919 

1920 

Total 

1919 

1920 

Total 

1<)1 

202 

M.l 

180 

177 

357 

750 

129 

247 

376 

77 

150 

227 

603 

138 

153 

291 

106 

92 

198 

489 

109 

81 

190 

75 

48 

123 

313 

35 

71 

106 

13 

25 

38 

144 

35 

36 

71 

13 

10 

23 

94 

24 

31 

55 

6 

6 

61 

25 

14 

39 

7 

10 

17 

56 

20 

11 

31 

10 

10 

20 

51 

20 

29 

49 

36 

37 

73 

122 

Per- 
cent 


27.9 

22.5 

18.2 

11.7 

5.4 

3.5 

2.3 

2.1 

1.9 

4.5 


These  returns  indicate  that  the  majority  of  the  graduates  of  the 
rural  high  schools  do  one  of  four  things :  go  to  college,  to  a  normal 
school,  teach  in  the  rural  schools  of  the  State,  or  enter  business. 
They  indicate  that  about  nine  of  each  one  hundred  of  the  boys  who 
graduate  from  the  high  school  take  up  farming.  A  significant  fact 
to  be  noted  here  is  that,  while  the  curricula  of  the  rural  high  school 
and  the  standards  set  up  are  designed  primarily  for  preparation  for 
college,  only  approximately  one-third  of  the  graduates  enter  college. 
Keeping  in  mind  that  one-third  or  less  of  those  who  enter  the  rural 
high  school  graduate,  it  is  evident  that  the  work  of  the  school  at  the 
present  time  in  the  main  is  of  a  nature  suited  to  meet  more  or  less 
directly  the  needs  of  only  one  out  of  nine  of  the  pupils  who  enter 
upon  a  high  school  course.  Conceding  that  a  curriculum  emphasiz- 
ing foreign  languages  and  mathematics  best  meets  also  the  needs  of 
those  going  to  normal  schools,  which  is  very  doubtful,  it  is  meeting 
directly  the  requirements  of  only  50  percent  of  its  graduates  or  one 
out  of  every  six  of  the  pupils  who  begin  high  school  work.  Recog- 
nizing also  the  fact  that  the  proportion  of  high  school  graduates 
going  on  to  higher  institutions  has  very  materially  increased  in  the 
past  decade  and  will  probably  continue  to  increase,  nevertheless  it 
seems  safe  to  conclude  that  the  curricula  as  constituted  at  present 

155 


would  be  adapted  at  best  to  but  a  minority  of  the  pupils  entering 
the  rural  high  school.  This  conclusion  seems  justified  since  the 
proportion  of  pupils  graduating  from  high  schools  as  compared 
with  the  number  entering  has  changed  but  very  gradually  over  a 
considerable  period  of  years. 

It  seems  clear  that  the  rural  high  school  must  always  keep  the 
door  of  opportunity  open  for  those  pupils  planning  to  continue  their 
training  in  higher  institutions.  It  seems  equally  clear  that  this 
should  not  be  done  by  neglecting  the  needs  of  the  great  majority  of 
pupils  who  cannot  or  do  not  continue  their  school  training  beyond 
one  or  more  years  in  the  high  school.  At  the  present  time  the  work 
offered  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  rural  high  school  curriculum  is 
almost  entirely  limited  to  subjects  required  for  college  entrance. 

The  Adaptation  of  the  Curriculum  Elements  to  the  Pupil 
as  Indicated  by  the  Percentage  of  Failures 

One  of  the  principles  underlying  all  modern  education  is  that  the 
curriculum  elements  and  the  standards  of  achievement  set  up 
should  be  suited  to  the  needs  and  abilities  of  the  pupil.  Applied  to 
secondary  education,  this  means  that  the  work  of  the  secondary 
school  should  be  adapted  to  the  abilities  of  the  pupils  of  secondary 
school  age  who  have  completed  the  work  of  the  elementary  school. 
Conservatively  speaking,  the  public  high  school  particularly  has  as 
its  responsibility  the  serving  of  the  educational  needs  of  all  persons 
of  high  school  age  who  have  completed  the  elementary  school.  It 
must,  if  it  is  to  meet  its  objectives,  select  by  differentiation  and  not 
by  elimination. 

The  study  of  the  curriculum  content  of  the  rural  high  school 
shows  that  it  is  designed  primarily  to  prepare  pupils  for  college. 
Its  program  of  studies  in  the  main  contains  only  the  older,  more 
traditional,  college  preparatory  subjects  and  only  in  a  small  degree 
the  newer  college  preparatory  studies.  The  data  on  the  percentage 
of  failures  in  the  various  academic  subjects  over  a  period  of  twelve 
years  indicate  that  the  standards  of  achievement  set  in  these  sub- 
jects are  not  suited  to  the  maturity  and  abilities  of  the  pupils  in  the 
rural  high  school.  Table  66  gives  the  percentage  of  pupils  failed  in 
eight  academic  subjects  over  a  period  of  twelve  years.    Table  69 

156 


w  < 


FC5 

<2 


Ovt-^^OOOoqvooc  00 


00  ^h  -*  O  C  O  O 


■t  vO  i"t  O  PJ  X  fO 

ot-~t~~t---ovo6o6"S 

rO  M  -h  (N  CN  N  tN  >-i 


CNr^O-<#rOrooqsq 


<-<;  <>J  00  "1  ~:  "~-  O  fN 
1-^  IO  f^  **  -h  \6  <^i  •<+ 
«N         r»5  -^h  (V)  CN  CN 


IN  "*  ^  1C  -t  M  O  t^ 


O^N^^OOO 


NNNOO't'H-tO 


00  i->  t-  ro  vO  ' 


ro  00  \C  "1  O  O  fO 't 

\6-*fNt-^o6<^'*»-~ 

rt   1H    N   (O   >H   f»)   fS 


"^fNOC^OTJOO 


O  00  ■**■  1^  00 


r^OOO")^N00 


>>  :.js"ffl 
a  .a 


a -a 

£■> 

a^ 
£-o 
o  a 

-    c 


<U   j_, 

w"  tc 

rt  S  C 

oo    ...    . 

<  a"— 

o    — 

")OnOoO 

<->  a 

Ov"5N"10 

rt  rttNrt  rt 

PL,— 

(/: 

►J 

O 

c 
H 

u 

>>  o     ; 

u 

o 

la 

in 

O     'Ti 

Mm  g1 

to 

e 

X 

SlEl^ 

H 

(S  fa  >.%  o 

<<Ht55cq 

H 

U 

w 

£ 

C    M 

g 

4>    C 

tf  «OOf) 

o 

<ONO\>00 

U 

CN  CN         ec  tH 

o 

Ph  **- 

<^) 

A 

v> 

W 

« 

p 

1-1 

<D 

o 

u< 

0) 

G 

w 

2 

>- 

> 

-» 

pq 
P 

C    OJ    O    fa    t/) 

(/j 

<u   w  .2  -C  J5 

1. 

OOCQUPh 

t- 

*0 

w 

^_) 

1-1 

C3 

iO  ^  o  \o  ^ 

i-*  rz^ 

I—  O  **  t~~  t~~ 

,_,   _   (V|   ,_|   ^ 

Ph"*- 

u 

<u 

-Q 

C/3 

,£! 

j: 

;  C  m 

•J3  c  2  P  -° 

c  ni  E  u^r 

[5 

3- 

If* 

3<t 

C/3 

<J 

n 

G 

es 

T) 

a 

i- 

o 

3> 

a 

1 1 

X 

en 

> 

-: 

c 

c 

Q 

3m 

o 

D 

3 

u 

d 

>> 

X 

>, 

*. 

X) 

a 

> 

j 

T3 

-1 

u 

■r 

c 

c 

u 


157 


Table  68. — Percent  of 

Pupils  Failing  in  15  Subjects  in  75  \\ 
High  Schools1 

'isoxnsin 

Subject 

Percent 
failing 

Subject 

Percent 
failing 

Subject 

Percent 
failing 

English  1 

English  2 

English  4 

Latin  1 

Latin  2 

10.0 
7.0 
3.0 

12.0 
7.0 

German  1 

German  2 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Physics 

10.0 

5.0 

14.0 

13.0 

3.0 

Phys.  Geog. .  .  . 
Anc.  History .  . 

Cooking 

Sewing 

Manual  Train- 
ing  

10.0 

10.0 

2.0 

2.0 

3.0 

shows  the  percentage  of  pupils  failed  in  the  eight  academic  subjects, 
based  on  a  study  of  approximately  1000  pupils,  a  random  selection 
for  each  subject  in  June,  1920. 

The  data  referred  to  show  that  taken  over  the  twelve  year  period 
the  lowest  average  percentage  of  failure  was  in  English  IV  with  12.6 
percent.  The  highest  percentage  of  failure  was  in  second  year 
Latin,  with  an  average  of  32  percent,  and  the  second  highest  in 
elementary  algebra,  with  31  percent.  A  significant  fact  is  that  the 
average  percentage  of  pupils  failed  for  the  twelve  years  1907-1918 
in  all  academic  subjects  was  28.8  percent. 

A  study  of  the  distribution  of  rural  high  school  pupils  in  eight 
academic  subjects  on  the  basis  of  grades  received  in  the  Regents 
examinations  in  June,  1920,  shows  a  similar  high  percentage  o  f  failure. 
It  also  shows  that  over  one-third  of  the  pupils  who  passed  received 
grades  between  60  and  69,  60  being  the  passing  mark.     (Table  69.) 

It  should  be  noted  also  that  the  data  presented  do  not  give  a  com- 
plete picture  of  the  conditions  as  they  exist.  The  figures  given  show 
only  the  percentage  of  pupils  failing  who  have  been  admitted  to 
the  examinations.  A  considerable  percentage  of  pupils  who  have 
taken  the  work  in  the  various  subjects  are  not  permitted  by  the 
local  authorities  to  take  the  Regents  examinations.  It  is  the  gen- 
eral practice  in  the  rural  high  schools  to  admit  to  the  examinations 


1  Janet  R.  Rankin:  A  Study  of  Students  Dropped,  Failed  and  Promoted  in 
High  School  Subjects,  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  Vol.  3 
p.  15,  1917. 

158 


able  69. — The  Distribution  of  Rukal  High  School  Pupils  in  Eight 
Academic  Subjects  on  the  Basis  of  Grades  Received  in  the  Regents 
Examinations  in  June,  1920.  (Based  on  the  Grades  of  Approximately 
1,000  Pupils  in  Each  Subject)1 


Subject 


Biology 

Elementary  Algebra 

English  II 

English  III 

English  IV 

Latin  II 

Ancient  History.  .  . 
American  History .  . 


Percentage  of  pupils  receiving  grade  indicated 


Failed       60-69       70-79       80-89      90-100 


47 
38 
26 
17 
9 
34 
21 
14 


41 
24 
36 
35 
31 
37 
38 
35 


9 
17 
26 
32 
35 
18 
23 
32 


2 

13 
11 
14 
21 

9 
13 
16 


only  those  pupils  whose  record  for  the  term  is  of  such  a  character  as 
to  indicate  their  successful  completion. 

Any  system  of  public  high  schools  failing  through  a  system  of 
examinations  on  an  average  more  than  28  out  of  every  100  pupils 
enrolled  in  its  academic  subjects  over  a  period  of  twelve  years 
should  be  viewed  with  much  concern.  It  would  seem  that  such  a 
high  percentage  of  failures,  together  with  the  fact  that  a  large 
percentage  of  the  successful  pupils  crowd  close  about  the  passing 
standard,  indicates  clearly  the  need  of  a  careful  study  of  the  existing 
aims,  curriculum  content  and  organization,  and  standards  of  achieve- 
ment of  the  rural  high  school.  It  should  be  examined  minutely  in 
the  light  of  the  interests,  abilities  and  life  purposes  of  the  pupils  for 
whose  training  it  should  exist.  Granting  that  the  results  of  the 
present  system  are  the  selection  and  preparation  of  a  superior 
group  of  individuals  for  college  work,  these  results  would  seem  to  be 
attained  at  too  great  a  cost. 

The  State  Syllabi  for  Secondary  Schools. — The  replies  of 
rural  high  school  instructors  to  the  question  as  to  their  use  of  the 
State  syllabi  in  the  various  subjects  indicate  that  over  80  percent  of 
them  follow  the  syllabi  to  the  letter  or  very  closely.  Less  than  20 
percent  of  the  teachers  reporting  use  them  only  as  a  guide  in  organ- 

1  From  a  study  by  T.  L.  Bayne,  graduate  student,  Cornell  University. 

159 


izing  their  work.  The  facts  obtained  through  the  observation  of 
high  school  instruction  and  through  the  visitation  of  rural  high 
schools  and  conferences  with  high  school  principals  and  teachers 
agree  with  the  preceding  statements.  The  fact  that  the  subject 
matter  of  the  rural  high  school  is  so  largely  determined  by  the 
syllabi  makes  important  the  question  as  to  the  nature  and  content 
of  the  syllabi  and  their  suitability  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  and 
teachers  of  the  rural  high  school. 

A  critical  study  of  the  secondary  school  syllabi  now  in  use  shows 
that  they  are  of  two  general  types:  The  first  type  consists  only  of  a 
brief  outline  of  the  subject  matter,  with  little  or  no  suggestion  as  to 
the  aims  and  objectives  desirable.  In  this  type  practically  no  hints 
as  to  methods  of  presentation  or  as  to  supplementary  sources  and 
materials  are  given.  No  indication  as  to  the  relative  values  of  the 
various  elements  of  the  course  is  offered  and  no  optional  or  alter- 
native topics  of  study  are  suggested.  The  second  type  of  syllabus 
differs  from  the  first  in  that  it  suggests  more  or  less  adequately 
desirable  aims  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject:  offers  suggestions  as  to 
methods  of  presentation:  suggests  sources  of  materials  and  other 
educational  means:  and  in  some  cases  gives  required,  alternative, 
and  optional  topics  and  problems.  Examples  of  syllabi  belonging 
entirely  or  largely  to  the  first  type  are  those  in  mathematics,  the 
physical  sciences,  manual  training,  the  modern  foreign  languages, 
and  civics.  Examples  of  the  second  type  are  the  syllabi  in  biology, 
drawing,  English,  history,  and  Latin. 

Since  these  syllabi  are  the  teacher's  courses  of  study  in  the  rural 
high  schools,  some  of  them  are  considered  in  detail  with  reference  to 
certain  desirable  characteristics  of  a  State  course  of  study.  A  State 
course  of  study,  or  syllabus,  in  any  secondary  school  subject  should: 

1.  Give  the  aims  and  objectives  (purposes)  of  the  course. 

2.  Suggest  the  best  methods  of  teaching  the  subject  and  furnish 
the  teacher  with  a  selected  list  of  references  on  the  teaching  of  the 
subject  in  question. 

3.  Give  the  principles  underlying  the  selection  and  organization  of 
subject  matter  in  secondary  school  subjects  and  the  specific  princi- 
ples pertaining  to  the  subject. 

4.  Give  the  subject  matter  of  the  course  grouped  about  the  im- 

160 


portant  general    topics  (with  required,  alternative,  and  optional 
topics  and  problems). 

5.  Give  suggestions  for  the  adaptation  of  subject  matter  to  dif- 
ferent types  of  schools  under  differing  local  conditions. 

6.  Give  definite  references  to  sources  of  data,  study  materials  and 
readings  suited  to  the  maturity  and  training  of  the  pupils  for  whom 
it  is  intended. 

7.  Suggest  the  time  to  be  given  to  the  study  and  the  possible 
variation  as  to  year  in  which  it  is  to  be  offered. 

Civics  and  Physics  as  Examples  of  Type  One. — The  syllabi  in 
civics  and  physics  are  taken  as  examples  of  type  one  and  are  ana- 
lyzed in  the  light  of  the  desirable  characteristics  given  above. 

(a)  The  syllabus  in  civics  contains  no  definite  analysis  of  the  aims 
and  objectives  of  the  course.  It  does  not  suggest  desirable  methods 
of  teaching  the  subject  beyond  a  brief  statement  on  the  preliminary 
approach,  and  a  suggestion  as  to  the  desirability  of  securing  the 
cooperation  of  local  officials.  It  offers  no  references  to  discussions 
of  objectives,  choice  and  organization  of  subject  matter,  or  methods 
of  teaching  as  an  aid  to  the  instructor.  Beyond  a  brief  general  dis- 
cussion on  the  desirability  of  proceeding  from  local  to  other  types  of 
civic  institutions,  there  are  no  definite  suggestions  as  to  the  special 
principles  underlying  the  selection  and  organization  of  subject  mat- 
ter in  civics.  In  the  body  of  the  syllabus  the  topics  to  be  studied  are 
arranged  under  their  appropriate  headings  as  the  school  district,  the 
town,  the  village,  the  city,  etc.  No  indication  is  made,  however,  as 
to  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  topics  for  different  types  of 
communities  nor  is  any  division  made  as  to  required,  alternative,  or 
optional  topics.  No  concrete  suggestions  for  the  adaptation  of  sub- 
ject matter  to  the  different  types  of  schools  are  offered  other  than 
the  statement:  "In  the  city,  municipal  government,  and,  in  the 
country,  the  government  of  the  school  district  and  the  township 
should  first  be  studied."  Finally,  the  syllabus  in  civics  gives  no 
references  to  sources  of  facts,  study  materials,  or  readings. 

In  conclusion,  the  syllabus  in  civics  lacks  in  large  part  those  char- 
acteristics which  would  make  it  adaptable  and  most  useful  in  rural 
high  schools.  The  contacts  of  rural  pupils  with  the  local,  State,  and 
national  civic  agencies,  both  voluntary  and  governmental,  are  so 
ii  161 


different  from  the  contacts  of  urban  pupils  that  the  effective  train- 
ing of  either  in  this  subject  would  seem  to  demand  extensive  adapta- 
tion of  subject  matter.  Not  only  are  the  voluntary  agencies  existing 
for  the  promotion  of  community  welfare  in  the  country  in  the  main 
different  from  those  in  the  city,  but  the  local  governmental  agencies 
also  are  different.  The  rural  community  also  comes  more  directly  in 
contact  with  certain  phases  of  State  and  national  government  than 
does  the  urban  community,  and  is  served  particularly  by  certain 
departments,  as  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  syllabus  gives  no  attention  to  the  various  rural  organiza- 
tions, as  the  Farm  and  Home  Bureaus,  the  Grange  or  other  organiza- 
tions important  in  rural  communities. 

(b)  The  syllabus  on  physics  gives  no  concrete  statements  as  to  the 
aims  and  objectives  which  should  guide  the  work  in  physics.  No 
suggestions  are  made  as  to  the  methods  found  effective  in  teaching 
physics  to  high  school  pupils,  nor  references  for  the  teacher  on  the 
teaching  of  the  subject.  It  contains  no  adequate  discussion  of  the 
principles  pertaining  particularly  to  physics.  The  body  of  the 
syllabus  gives  only  the  list  of  topics  "deemed  fundamental"  to  the 
course.  No  alternative  or  optional  topics  are  indicated.  No  con- 
crete suggestions  are  made  for  adapting  the  teaching  of  physics  to 
the  needs  and  experiences  of  pupils  of  different  community  environ- 
ments or  to  groups  of  pupils  of  differing  needs.  No  references  to 
sources  of  information  adapted  to  the  abilities  and  interests  of  high 
school  pupils  are  made.  The  syllabus  on  physics  is,  in  short,  a  brief 
outline  of  a  very  formal  traditional  type. 

English  and  Biology  as  Examples  of  Type  Two. — The  syllabi  on 
English  language  and  literature  and  on  biology  belong  in  the  main 
to  type  two  and  are  analyzed  in  the  light  of  the  characteristics  sug- 
gested, (a)  The  English  syllabus  begins  with  a  sentence  of  great 
importance  as  bearing  upon  the  question  of  State  syllabi:  "As  this 
syllabus  is  designed  for  schools  working  under  widely  varying  con- 
ditions, it  is  expected  that  each  school,  with  this  as  a  basis,  will  work 
out  a  detailed  syllabus  for  itself,  indicating  the  specific  work  for  each 
half  year."  Throughout,  the  syllabus  shows  the  desirable  tendency 
to  break  away  from  the  formality  so  common  in  secondary  school 
English  and  in  general  agrees  with  the  point  of  view  presented  in  the 

162 


Report  on  Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools  by  the 
National  Joint  Committee  on  English. 

It  gives  in  some  detail  the  aims  and  objectives  in  teaching  Eng- 
lish literature  and  expression  (oral  and  written)  in  secondary  schools 
and  indicates  in  a  general  way  phases  to  be  emphasized  in  different 
years.  It  contains  a  brief  discussion  as  to  desirable  methods  of  in- 
struction, but  suggests  no  concrete  references  for  aiding  the  teacher. 
It  does  not  give  any  principles  underlying  the  selection  and  organi- 
zation of  subject  matter  for  secondary  schools,  but  does  indicate 
some  of  the  principles  applicable  to  the  selection  and  organization  of 
work  in  English  literature  and  expression.  Required  and  optional 
units  of  work  are  suggested.  Groupings  of  subject  matter  as  to 
types  are  made.  The  syllabus  contains  suggestions  as  to  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  work,  especially  in  composition,  to  pupils  of  different 
environments  and  interests.  Suggested  lists  of  supplementary  read- 
ings in  literature,  classified  according  to  types,  are  given,  and  atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  desirability  of  developing  in  pupils  habits  of 
reading  contemporary  literature  in  books  and  magazines.  No 
references  are  indicated  bearing  upon  oral  and  written  expression. 
This  would  seem  to  be,  particularly  from  the  standpoint  of  the  rural 
high  school,  a  real  weakness  in  the  syllabus. 

In  general  the  State  syllabus  in  English,  with  the  exception  of  its 
lack  of  concrete  suggestions  as  to  professional  references  to  aid  the 
teacher  and  as  to  study  references  to  aid  the  pupil  in  oral  and 
written  composition,  seems  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  rural  high 
school.  The  failure  to  give  any  unit  of  time  entirely  to  American 
literature  would  appear  to  be  a  weakness  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
values  of  literature  in  relation  to  American  citizenship. 

(b)  The  syllabus  on  the  biological  sciences  belongs  in  the  main  to 
the  second  type.  Only  the  part  dealing  with  elementary  biology 
recommended  as  the  beginning  course  in  science  for  high  schools  is 
here  considered.  It  is  a  general  course,  including  plant,  animal,  and 
human  biology.  The  emphasis  of  the  course  is  largely  upon  the 
structural  phases  of  biology,  though  the  study  of  structure  is  linked 
up  with  the  question  of  function.  A  considerable  number  of  the 
topics  touch  upon  the  civic  and  economic  bearings  of  biology  though 


163 


these  phases  of  the  subject  are  not  suggested  as  furnishing  an  angle 
of  approach. 

As  to  the  aims  and  objectives  of  a  beginning  course  in  biology  the 
syllabus  suggests  four  general  aims  but  makes  no  analysis  of  the 
special  objectives  to  be  used  as  the  goals  of  instruction.  A  very 
brief  discussion  of  methods  of  study  and  suggestions  as  to  methods 
of  teaching  is  given.  The  syllabus  contains,  however,  no  references 
to  books  or  articles  on  the  teaching  of  biology  or  its  content  and 
organization  in  secondary  schools  as  aids  for  the  teacher  of  the  sub- 
ject. Topics  for  study  are  given  under  the  appropriate  main  head- 
ings and  include  prescribed,  alternative,  optional  and  suggested 
additional  topics. 

No  definite  suggestions  for  the  adaptation  of  subject  matter  to 
different  types  of  schools  or  communities  are  made  other  than  that 
"each  teacher  is  at  liberty  to  select  the  divisions  and  the  topics  that 
can  be  studied  to  the  best  advantage  and  to  consider  them  at  the 
time  of  year  when  material  is  most  easily  obtained."  The  syllabus 
contains  no  references  to  sources  of  reading  for  the  pupil. 

In  conclusion,  the  State  syllabus  on  elementary  biology  has  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  most  of  the  characteristics  of  a  good  course  of 
study,  and  should  serve  the  needs  of  a  well-trained  teacher  of  the 
biological  sciences  working  with  good  library  and  laboratory  equip- 
ment. From  the  standpoint  of  the  rural  high  school  where  the  sub- 
ject is  often  taught  by  an  inexperienced  and  poorly  trained  teacher 
it  is  insufficient.  For  the  average  teacher  of  the  rural  high  school  it 
should  contain  concrete  references  to  discussions  on  the  principles  of 
selection  and  organization  of  science  materials  for  high  school  pupils 
and  the  most  successful  methods  of  presentation.  More  detailed 
and  concrete  suggestions  are  needed  as  to  the  objectives  of  science 
teaching,  particularly  a  beginning  science,  in  secondary  schools,  and 
as  to  the  possibilities  of  its  adaptation  to  different  local  conditions. 
It  is  especially  weak  in  its  failure  to  give  a  list  of  references  to  the 
rich  mine  of  literature  on  the  various  phases  of  biology  and  its  appli- 
cation to  social  and  economic  life. 

A  careful  study  of  the  teaching  of  biology  in  the  rural  high  schools 
indicates  that  it  is  too  frequently  taught  as  a  text-book  subject  with 
emphasis  upon  the  memorization  of  classifications,  definitions,  and 

164 


structure.  The  high  percentage  of  failures,  particularly  during  the 
past  eight  years,  indicates  either  that  the  standards  of  achievement 
set  or  the  nature  of  the  work  required,  or  both,  are  not  adapted  to 
the  ability  of  pupils  in  the  first  year  of  the  rural  high  school. 

The  analysis  of  the  existing  State  syllabi  for  secondary  schools 
shows  that  they  do  not  in  general  meet  adequately  the  needs  of  the 
rural  high  schools  comprising  in  number  of  schools  approximately 
80  percent  of  the  high  schools  of  the  State.  It  is  undoubtedly  desira- 
ble that  the  State  should  offer  syllabi  for  the  rural  high  schools  but 
these  syllabi  should  be  constructed  with  definite  regard  to  the  needs 
of  the  rural  high  school.  They  should  serve  as  the  basis  upon  which 
to  build  courses  of  study  rather  than  as  courses  of  study  for  the 
rural  high  schools. 

Size  of  Classes. — The  data  from  184  rural  high  schools  selected 
at  random  and  representing  schools  of  each  type  on  the  basis  of 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  show  that:  the  median  class  in  schools 
with  an  enrolment  under  50  has  6.8  pupils;  the  median  class  in 
schools  with  an  enrolment  between  50  and  99  has  11.6  pupils;  and 
the  median  class  in  schools  with  over  100  pupils  has  17.2  pupils.1 
These  facts  show  that  the  smaller  the  schools  the  smaller  are  the 
classes.  If  the  small  rural  high  school  is  to  offer  a  program  of 
studies  at  all  adequate  to  meet  the  demands  of  secondary  education 
today,  it  is  evident  that  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  class  must 
always  be  less  than  in  the  larger  schools.  As  a  result  the  cost  of 
instruction  per  pupil  hour,  assuming  teachers  equally  well  trained 
and  paid,  must  be  greater  in  the  smaller  schools. 

A  study  of  the  question  as  to  the  size  of  classes  in  the  various  sub- 
jects shows  that  there  is  great  variation.  As  would  be  expected,  the 
classes  in  subjects  offered  in  the  upper  years  of  the  course  are  smaller 
than  classes  in  subjects  given  in  the  first  or  second  year.  (See 
Table  70.) 

Table  71  indicates  the  median  size  class  in  sixteen  academic  sub- 
jects commonly  taught  in  the  rural  high  schools'  shows  the  varia- 
tion of  the  median  for  each  subject  from  the  median  for  all  classes, 
and  gives  the  estimated  cost  of  instruction  per  pupil  hour.  It  is  seen 
that  third-  and  fourth-year  English  cost  approximately  one-third 
more  per  pupil  hour  than  first-year  English  in  the  schools  with  an 
1  See  Table  21,  page  44. 
165 


o  < 


d 

' 

►3 

- 

55 

o 

9 

u 

H 

•r 

B 

C5 

10 

P 

>* 

r>~ 


o 

(K 

a 

o 

s 

M 

o 

a 

U 

w 

a 

u 

o 

o 

w 

M 

>—, 

/. 

w 

a 

C/J 

55 

> 

55 

< 

o 
« 
< 

HI 

w 

H 

P 

W 

'- 

r^ 

5!  i> 

<H 

^ 

►40 

jZj 

OO 

o 

■-H 

CO 

w 

9 
U 
s. 

o 

H 

H 
55 

o 

55 

W 

SioO 

a  g  ^ 

oo  £ 


W 


e/5  o 


a 


O  W  00 
H 

M  Si 

M  'JO 


1^  o 


55 

c/5W 


a. 

o 


i 


a 
a 


P- 
H 


a  > 


O 


«5f^00OONl'lNi- 


■  \q  — <  ©    •    -ooq 

'  't  -H  o  "  ©  f^ 

in  ~<  re  Of, 


f^rnioXO'C'OOvO      •  "f  re  ©      •  O^  ©  •'i  ""> 

'i/jto^i  '  vd  oo  ©'  re 

**•  re    **  re  in    CN  re  -}>  rN 


•>*  in  CN  m  ■ 

f^NNrfOfO'-iO;!') 
rn  Tji  ■*  r<  ro  00  (N  t»)  O 


■■*O00I^'*tN(N 

'O^o'hnho'h 


© 
T 

'  H 

•  vO  00  -#  re  t-~  O  O 

'  re  ,-h  ©°  re  ^  in  in 

■  <e  ©  ■*  oo 

'  re  rN  c>  © 
re         M"1 

'  in  re 

rvj 

•lOreoO^f      •  00  ©  00  O 


»o<toNOO  •  ©  in 
iri i  >o  OO  CN  CN  re  '  ©  oi 
iO  re  re  <->        CN 


Ov  ^  re  00 


t--  re  ©  CN  ©  CN  •"i©  ••^00©  •0Ct-"-©0C 
VO  f~  O  CN  CN  O0  '  CN  in  '  *-^  00  ©'  'th  Nrtrt 
CN  CN  CN    U)h    >-c      -^f    CN    ._,  re  re  «-h 


ce©inr^©r^ootoinr-.inint^»      TttNoov 

ceininvdoOCNrecNCNsdoOrein      '  O^  CN  t--°  in 

rtM«5(N  CN         rere-H         CN  CN         CN  -h  re 


"#  «5  a  o^  o  o  ^  ">  ^  ' '"}  ""l  **: 

Ti«-Ho6a6sd©lOt--cN  '  in  t-^  in 

rHtNTf     "**-<CV1tJ<         ■**<  CN 


•  re  © 

'255 


l^*©©u"5*-HLOlOre 
0©<NTJ<»-it^l-^re 

CN       00    »-<  00 


\Q    Tj"  ©  Tj4 

©  -5  ©  o< 


re  re 


<0  in 


.  —  so 

O  W 


©  00 
CN  CN 


Tf  0>   •  CN  re  CN 
Tf  i-i   '  O^  <N  "# 


OO  t-< 


©  00  ©  re  m  CN 


•  ore©rereo\     •  on  re  oo  re 

'  r-^  ON  ©  00  CN  00      '  TF  in  re  tJ< 
_  rttN         ^<  CN  CN 


rereCMCS-rJ<0-^t^re©resOCS       •ONOO'O 


qioooifiooc>otNioopoqi^q(NOO'-i 

©'©o6c^reiO^Op<0©IA)CNpN©0>CNONr^ 


r-jrereiO'-ireoOre'Ot^        vO  CN 


^f.  ^H  ~4  SO 


►— 

1— 

> 

-a 
a 

d 

H 

J3  J=  J5  43  i-h  h-t  i-h 

.52  .2  .-  .2  c  c  a 

c  c 
WW 


4J    be  ^ 


i2  b2 

PQ   O   vi 


S    « 


WWi 


a  .a  .a  a  a  a 


IWWWW 


Ji  3  J2  =3  ^^  a  S 

w  ^  ph  c/2  a,  w  <c  <: 


166 


T: 

J 

^- 

(J 

a 

r/1 

P 

hi 

O 

a 

O 

X 

a 

< 

u 

■•/. 

C/l 

H 

M 

o 

rn 

£1 

< 

►J 

u 

«  hJ 

&< 

fa   O  „ 
O  fa  -— 

»  «S  J 


?  2 

&  5  2 

W   goo 
W    H   fa 

£  a  o 


2  5  w 


2^ 


.5   H 


X 


hH  _^ 


Q   O     . 

o  z,  t> 
w  ri  j 

*££ 

2  2  « 
«  *  * 

1/2  u  _ 

2  3  z 

hj  a  2 
<  fa  « 

S  O   H 

O    W    W) 

«  S2  £ 
^  <  fa 

w«  o 

r*    W    H 
7«S 


*H  55 


u 


o 


T 


.§«£ 


w 


o      —  d^ 

•5  a  g  .2  o« 

.2  o £-Ot-~ 


73         •- 

«   i-    3 

is- 

■a  §  a 

.-"U3 

W      a 


O  —     d    _ 

■^  g  8~^ 

"C  q        ' 


«  _l 


rtlOOl'-HON'tfOOOTlllO 


©;  IO       ■  IC  NO  II  IN  w  O  t^  M  «) 

•-Jo     '  O"  — <r^i<-'i-1"-Hp^o\'^0 

+  +    +77+ I ++ I  I  + 


'-INNNOONO^Ml'JO'') 

On 


iOi^C0-+i^00r^l©t--Ov0©\0 

S'OOvoor^ooiO'-ii^^'r^cNj'-i 
OO©r0f3O~HO©~*'-<»-H 


>OrON^O'-<COiOOv'tO('HfO 

o\'u-j— !oo6av\d'v5©c^fo,*'^J 
+  +  I    I    I    I  +  I  ++  I    I    I 


CNOv^l^O'O'f'^lOON'OfO 


o    —    ~ 

*j  <u  o 
'-3  g  a 


§     -d 

ni  ■**  «  d 
>  e 


•*rHin(soovq^f^«)qoqoq«) 
r-iooC3,rJroiOfOO\do'cNoj 
+  +  I  +  I     I  +  I  ++  I     I     I 


MOifOOON'-ii'lHCOOOO 

0\Ovdt-~<NS<v5CN<rJt--J<,N'O'*'^J 


& 


ZXl 


i  -u  J5f  <  C    - 

CShH    C*  rt    5 

HHHMHH«g  8   :   :^d-S 

.2.2.2  p  c-5  g  g  «  g>.|  -g-c  § 

d    C    C    e3    rt    t-  —  7-  _2  .-  42  -d    d    en 

WWWhJh-)ht,WH5PM«A-U<W 


.S'S.etf 


J.SjS 
y  ^  « 

E  3  2 


167 


enrolment  under  50.  In  schools  with  50  to  99  pupils  third-  and 
fourth-year  English  cost  over  twice  as  much  per  pupil  hour  as  first- 
year  English.  In  schools  with  an  enrolment  under  50,  Latin  III 
and  IV  and  French  III  and  IV  have  a  per  pupil  hour  cost  for  in- 
struction more  than  twice  that  of  the  median  class  for  all  subjects. 
In  schools  with  50  to  99  pupils  the  cost  of  instruction  per  pupil  hour 
in  Latin  III  and  IV  is  almost  four  times  as  much  as  in  the  median 
class  for  schools  of  that  type  and  in  French  III  and  IV  it  is  over  four 
and  a  half  times  that  of  the  median  class  for  the  school.  In  schools 
with  a  pupil  enrolment  over  100  the  cost  of  instruction  per  pupil 
hour  in  Latin  III  and  IV  is  almost  three  times  that  of  the  median 
class  in  the  school,  and  in  French  III  and  IV  it  is  almost  four  times 
that  of  the  median  class.  The  per  pupil  hour  cost  of  instruction  in 
intermediate  algebra  in  schools  with  an  enrolment  under  50  is  prac- 
tically twice  that  of  the  median  class. 

It  should  not  be  concluded  that  subjects  taught  in  the  rural  high 
school  at  a  high  cost  per  pupil  hour  should  be  eliminated  from  the 
program  of  the  school  and  that  the  number  of  subjects  offered  should 
be  decreased.  The  great  variation  in  the  cost  of  instruction  for 
different  subjects  does  indicate,  however,  the  need  of  a  careful  study 
of  the  curricula  of  the  rural  high  school  with  a  view  to  discovering  a 
better  organization  of  the  program  of  studies  and  to  determining  on 
the  basis  of  the  actual  needs  of  the  pupil  population  the  relative 
values  of  the  subjects  offered  at  present  and  of  subjects  that  might 
be  offered.  As  was  suggested  in  the  discussion  on  the  organization 
of  the  rural  high  school  there  are  probably  possibilities  of  improving 
the  curricula  and  programs  of  studies  through  the  alternation  of  sub- 
jects and  through  beginning  foreign  languages  every  other  year.  It 
might  be  found  economical  in  every  way  also  for  certain  schools  only 
in  groups  of  neighboring  rural  high  schools  to  offer  certain  advanced 
subjects  as  French  III  and  IV  or  chemistry  and  for  the  other  schools 
to  send  pupils  desiring  that  subject  to  the  school  offering  them.  By 
such  cooperation  each  school  would  be  able  to  extend  its  program  of 
studies  in  the  direction  of  meeting  more  adequately  the  needs  of  the 
larger  number  of  pupils  enrolled. 

Contemporary  Magazines  as  a  Source  of  Supplementary 
Subject  Matter. — A  phase  of  high  school  work  increasingly  rec- 

168 


ognized  as  important  is  the  development  in  high  school  pupils  of  an 
interest  in  contemporary  literature  and  problems  of  today  and  the 
habit  of  reading  newspapers  and  magazines.  This  is  primarily  a 
curriculum  problem.  The  newspaper  and  magazine  afford  valuable 
sources  of  supplementary  reading  particularly  in  the  social  and 


Table  72. — Magazines  in  Rural  High  School  Libraries.  Data  from  403 
Schools  as  Reported  by  the  Principal.  Only  Magazines  Found  in 
Five  or  More  Schools  are  Listed 


Name  of  magazine 


None 

Literary  Digest 

National  Geographic.  .  .  . 

Independent 

Outlook 

Current  Events 

World's  Work 

Youth's  Companion .... 

Popular  Mechanics 

Review  of  Reviews 

Popular  Science  Monthly 

Atlantic  Monthly 

American 

St.  Nicholas 

Scientific  American 

American  Boy 

Country  Gentlemen .... 

Harper's  Magazine 

Boy's  Life 

Current  History 

Rural  New  Yorker 

Ladies'  Home  Journal . . . 
Scribner's  Magazine .... 
Saturday  Evening  Post.  . 

Little  Folks 

Current  Opinion 

Current  Topics 

Cornell  Countrymen .... 
A  daily  Newspaper 


Size  of  school 


1-49 

pupils 
less 
than 

4  years 
work 


20 

26 

11 

7 

3 

12 

3 

6 

1 

4 

1 

i 

3 
1 

1 
2 


1-19 

pupils 


46 
80 
36 
37 
19 
31 
11 
16 
18 
12 
4 


3 
3 
1 
4 
2 
1 

3 
1 
1 

4 

2 

2 

12 


50-99 
pupils 


19 
65 
33 
31 
30 
24 
27 
19 
19 
17 
14 
7 
7 

10 
7 
2 
6 
3 
4 
2 
4 
4 
1 
2 
1 

i 

2 

8 


100- 
149 

pupils 


6 

23 

23 

15 

18 

6 

13 

10 

9 

12 

7 

9 

3 

3 

1 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 


150 

and 

more 

pupils 


4 
14 

8 
2 
7 
2 
3 
2 
4 
3 
3 
1 
1 
1 
4 
2 


Total 


95 

208 

111 

92 

77 

75 

57 

53 

51 

48 

29 

23 

20 

17 

16 

11 

11 

9 

8 

7 

7 

7 

6 

6 

6 

5 

5 

5 

31 


Per- 
cent 


23.6 

51.6 

27.5 

22.8 

19.1 

18.6 

14.1 

13.2 

12.7 

11.9 

7.2 

5.7 

5.0 

4.2 

4.0 

2.7 

2.7 

2.2 

2.0 

1.7 

1.7 

1.7 

1.5 

1.5 

1.5 

1.2 

1.2 

1.2 

7.7 


169 


natural  sciences  and  English  and  offer  a  vital  means  of  contact  be- 
tween the  regular  class-room  work  and  life. 

The  reports  of  403  principals  of  rural  high  schools  show  that  many 
of  the  schools  have  five  or  more  magazines  in  the  school  library  and 
a  large  proportion  have  one  or  more.  Almost  24  percent  of  the 
schools,  however,  reported  no  current  magazines  in  the  library  and 
only  8  percent  had  a  daily  newspaper.  Over  half  of  the  schools  re- 
porting had  the  "Literary  Digest,"  approximately  one-fourth  of 
them  had  the  "National  Geographic  Magazine"  and  23  percent  the 
"Independent."  Other  magazines  in  more  than  10  percent  of  the 
libraries  were  the  "Outlook,"  "Current  Events,"  "The  World's 
Work,"  "The  Youth's  Companion,"  "Popular  Mechanics"  and  the 
"  Review  of  Reviews."  Eighteen  other  magazines  were  reported  by 
five  or  more  schools  each. 

The  data  from  this  phase  of  the  study  indicate  that,  with  the 
exception  of  a  comparatively  small  proportion  of  the  rural  high 
schools,  too  little  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  reading  of  current 
magazines.     (See  Table  72.) 

Section  2. — Some  Principles  Underlying  the  Building  of  the 
Rural  High  School  Curriculum 

Any  analysis  of  the  curriculum  of  a  school  or  type  of  schools  that 
is  to  be  constructive,  to  be  more  than  a  mere  cataloging  of  facts  as  to 
existing  conditions,  must  be  based  upon  principles  underlying  curric- 
ulum building.  It  must  evaluate  the  elements  of  the  curriculum  in 
the  light  of  the  purposes  which  that  curriculum  is  to  serve. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  fundamental  aim  of  the  high  school  is  the 
same  whether  it  is  situated  in  the  city  or  in  a  rural  or  village  com- 
munity. In  either  case  its  ultimate  aim  is  individual  and  social 
efficiency.  Because  of  differences  in  the  experience  background  of 
rural  high  school  pupils  as  contrasted  with  city  high  school  pupils, 
it  is  probable  that  even  for  the  attainment  of  objectives  common  to 
both  types  of  schools,  differences  in  subject  matter  will  often  be 
advisable.  Because  of  differences  in  the  life  purposes  of  major 
groups  in  the  pupil  population,  certain  of  the  objectives  of  the  rural 
high  school  may  be  other  than  those  of  the  city  high  school. 

The  basic  principle  by  which  ultimately  any  unit  of  the  educa- 

170 


tional  system  must  be  evaluated  is  its  effectiveness  in  promoting  in- 
dividual and  social  efficiency  with  the  time  and  materials  it  has  at 
its  command.  The  curriculum  elements  must  be  suited  to  the 
maturity  and  capacities  of  its  pupils.  These  principles  imply  the 
constant  adjustment  of  the  school  to  the  needs  and  demands  of  its 
pupils  and  of  the  society  by  which  it  is  maintained.  The  school 
exists  for  the  training  of  the  individuals  whom  it  is  designed  to  serve 
to  meet  in  the  ablest  fashion  their  problems  while  in  school  and  later 
in  life. 

One's  success  in  meeting  the  various  situations  that  arise  depends 
largely  upon  his  training  in  relation  to  life  contacts.  The  principal 
life  contacts  of  an  individual  today,  as  a  member  of  the  various 
social  groups,  whether  in  rural  or  urban  communties,  seem  to  be 
reducible  to  a  comparatively  small  number  of  related  but  fairly 
distinct  types.  A  partial  analysis  of  these  contacts  gives  a  basis 
for  determining  the  direction  which  the  work  of  the  high  school 
should  take  if  it  is  to  attain  its  ultimate  aim.  The  setting  up  of 
specific  objectives  and  the  selection  of  specific  subject-matter  ele- 
ments to  be  utilized  in  the  attainment  of  these  objectives  must 
ultimately  depend  upon  a  detailed  analysis  of  each  of  the  general 
types  of  life  contacts.  For  determining  the  work  of  the  rural  high 
school  this  analysis  must  be  made  with  reference  to  the  knowledge, 
abilities,  attitudes  and  ideals  necessary  for  making  these  contacts 
sympathetically,  intelligently  and  effectively.  It  must  also  rec- 
ognize the  fact  that  for  individuals  of  different  life  aims  the  specific 
contacts  within  the  groups  will  vary. 

In  general  the  important  groups  of  life  contacts  within  which  the 
specific  contacts  of  the  individual  lie  are: 

1.  Health  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 

(a)  As  a  follower  of  health  practices  and  principles. 

(b)  As  a  promoter  of  family  and  community  health. 

2.  Economic  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 

(a)  As  a  producer. 

(b)  As  a  business  man,  manager,  enterpriser,  salesman. 

(c)  As  a  consumer. 

3.  Civic  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 
(a)  As  a  voter. 

171 


(b)  As  a  participator  in  the  work  of  civic  institutions,  volun- 

tary and  governmental. 

(c)  As  a  promoter  of  civic  progress. 

4.  Social  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 

(a)  As  a  participator  in  the  social  life  of  the  community. 

(b)  As  a  promoter  of  desirable  phases  of  social  life. 

5.  Intellectual  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 

(a)  As  an  individual  interested  in  intellectual  matters  of  to- 

day. 

(b)  As  a  participator  in  the  intellectual  life  and  problems  of 

the  community  and  of  society  in  general. 

(c)  As  a  promoter  of  the  intellectual  life  of  the  community. 
0.  Recreational  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 

(a)  As  an  individual  interested  and  trained  in  desirable  ways 

and  means  of  recreation. 

(b)  As  a  participator  in  desirable  forms  of  recreation. 

(c)  As  a  promoter  of  desirable  forms  of  recreation  in  the  com- 

munity. 

7.  Esthetic  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 

(a)  As  an  appreciator  of  the  beautiful. 

(b)  As  an  advocate  of  better  opportunities  for  the  enjoyment 

of  the  beautiful. 

(c)  As  a  promoter  of  those  things  which  add  to  the  beauty  of 

the  community. 

8.  Religious  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 

(a)  As  a  follower  of  religious  principles. 

(b)  As  a  participator  in  the  religious  life  of  the  community. 

(c)  As  a  promoter  of  religious  life. 

9.  Moral-ethical  contacts,  or  contacts  necessary: 
(a)  As  a  follower  of  moral  and  ethical  standards. 

(6)  As  a  promoter  of  moral  and  ethical  practices  and  prin- 
ciples. 
Every  individual  today  must  make  in  one  way  or  another  contacts 
in  at  least  all  the  groups  given  above.  The  important  question 
for  the  community  and  for  society  in  general  is  his  attitude  in 
making  them  and  the  ability  with  which  he  acts.  Both  for  himself 
and  for  the  community  in  which  he  lives,  it  is  highly  desirable  that 

172 


he  should  make  these  contacts  sympathetically,  intelligently  and 
effectively.  To  make  them  in  a  sympathetic,  intelligent,  and 
effective  manner  requires  that  he  shall  be  in  possession  of  certain 
knowledge,  shall  have  formed  certain  habits  of  thinking,  shall  have 
developed  certain  abilities,  and  shall  be  governed  by  certain  atti- 
tudes and  ideals  with  respect  to  these  contacts. 

The  problem  of  the  rural  high  school  with  respect  to  its  objectives 
and  consequently  with  respect  to  its  program  of  studies  and  cur- 
riculum content  and  organization  develops  directly  out  of  the  life 
contacts  needed  today.  Its  solution  requires  a  scientific  approach 
and  patient  scientific  study.  Such  a  study  must  eventually  result 
in  a  complete  analysis  of  life  contacts,  and  the  discovery  of  those 
specific  activities  for  which  the  school  as  an  institution  is  respon- 
sible and  their  organization  on  the  basis  of  their  relative  values 
and  with  regard  to  the  abilities  and  needs  of  individuals  of  high 
school  age  reared  in  village  and  rural  communities. 

Such  a  study  will  undoubtedly  show  that  many  of  the  abilities, 
attitudes,  ideals,  and  elements  of  knowledge  needed  by  the  individual 
have  been  or  should  be  gained  in  the  elementary  school.  It  will 
undoubtedly  reveal  the  fact  that  many  are  partially  or  fully  gained 
through  social  agencies  other  than  the  school,  and  that  some  are 
not  feasible  during  the  secondary  school  period.  For  example, 
most  of  the  training  desirable  for  religious  contacts  probably  lies 
beyond  the  province  of  the  high  school,  though  the  inculcation  of 
certain  knowledge  and  the  development  of  certain  attitudes  and 
ideals  may  be  found  to  be  a  desirable  phase  of  its  work.  Again 
the  problem  of  moral  and  ethical  contacts  may  be  found  to  run 
transversely  through  all  other  life  contacts  and  not  to  require  con- 
sideration as  a  special  phase  of  high  school  training  but  rather  as  a 
part  of  all  phases.  All  of  these  questions  can  be  answered  only 
gradually  as  the  analysis  proceeds  and  as  the  work  of  the  school  is 
determined  with  relation  to  the  present-day  needs  of  the  individual 
and  of  the  social  groups  to  which  he  belongs. 

While  the  nature  of  the  work  of  the  rural  high  school  is  a  problem, 
the  final  solution  of  which  lies  in  the  future,  it  seems  possible  in 
accordance  with  the  partial  analysis  of  life  contacts  above  to  set  up 
provisionally  at  least  the  main  objectives  toward  the  realization  of 

173 


which  the  rural  high  school  should  strive.  Hence  the  following 
objectives  are  suggested  as  those  necessary  for  the  rural  high  school 
in  wwking  toward  its  aim:  individual  and  social  efficiency.  The 
results  of  scientific  study  may  alter  them  and  must  be  depended 
upon  to  supply  the  facts  necessary  for  establishing  the  specific 
objectives. 

1.  To  promote  in  the  pupil  a  normal  physical  development. 

2.  To  guide  each  pupil  toward  the  selection  of  a  worthy  life  work 
and  in  planning  his  high  school  work  in  harmony  with  his  choice. 

3.  To  train  the  pupil  not  going  beyond  the  high  school  for  intel- 
ligent self-support  in  some  worthy  type  of  life  work  within  the 
limits  of  his  stage  of  maturity,  of  his  capacities,  and  of  the  time 
span  of  the  rural  high  school. 

4.  To  promote  the  development  in  each  pupil  of  a  sense  of  his 
responsibility  as  a  member  of  society  and  of  a  democracy  (accept- 
ance of,  and  a  feeling  of  responsibility  for,  the  performance  of  civic 
duties). 

5.  To  stimulate  and  train  each  pupil  so  far  as  age  and  time  permit 
to  participate  intelligently  in  promoting  the  welfare  of  society 
(service). 

6.  To  give  each  pupil  training  in  some  desirable  forms  of  recrea- 
tion for  his  leisure  time  or  moments  of  relaxation. 

7.  To  stimulate  each  pupil  to  continue  his  education  after  his 
school  life  is  ended  (to  promote  the  development  of  some  permanent 
appreciations,  interests,  habits,  and  desires  for  continued  growth). 

8.  To  train  each  pupil,  in  so  far  as  the  age  of  the  secondary  school 
pupil  makes  desirable,  to  meet  intelligently  the  responsibilities  of 
home  life  and  parenthood. 

9.  To  train  each  pupil  through  and  in  relation  to  all  the  work  of 
the  school  in  ethical  habits  and  attitudes. 

10.  To  prepare  those  pupils  who  so  desire  to  enter  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning. 

In  developing  the  studies,  sequence  of  studies  and  student  life  of 
the  rural  high  school  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  objectives 
suggested,  or  others  to  be  established,  and  to  give  sufficient  varia- 
tion to  meet  the  needs  of  the  groups  of  pupils  for  whom  the  curricula 
are  designed,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  two  great  forces  in 

174 


society.  There  is  the  integrating  force  tending  to  hold  the  various 
social  groups  together  through  common  knowledge,  common 
attitudes,  and  common  ideals.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  the 
differentiating  force  tending  to  draw  groups  apart  through  lack  of 
common  knowledge,  lack  of  common  attitudes  and  ideals,  and 
through  the  competition  or  antagonisms  of  local,  partisan,  and 
group  interests.  In  a  democratic  society  it  is  necessary  to  main- 
tain a  balance  between  these  forces. 

Upon  the  secondary  school,  both  because  of  the  maturity  and 
interests  of  its  pupils  and  because  of  the  large  number  of  pupils 
coming  under  its  direction,  would  seem  to  rest  the  main  responsi- 
bility for  preserving  the  balance  between  these  two  forces.  Every 
school  program  should  contain  subjects  of  an  integrating  nature 
and  a  high  school  program  must,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  objec- 
tives of  secondary  education,  contain  elements  of  the  differentiating 
type.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  high  school,  and  the  rural  high 
school  particularly,  both  because  of  a  limited  program  and  because 
of  the  relatively  large  proportion  of  required  subjects,  has  worked 
mainly  in  the  direction  of  integration.  In  the  main,  however,  the 
content  of  the  subjects  taken  by  all  pupils  has  been  but  indirectly 
related  to  the  life  of  today,  and  hence  has  probably  tended  to 
develop  in  no  vital  sense  the  abilities,  attitudes  and  knowledge 
elements  of  genuine  integrating  values.  The  program  of  the  rural 
high  school  has  offered  comparatively  little  in  the  way  of  subjects 
of  the  differentiating  type.  If  it  is  to  attain  its  objectives,  it  must 
in  the  future  give  greater  opportunity  for  differentiation  and  at  the 
same  time  select  its  integrating  subjects  upon  a  more  vital  basis. 

As  a  guide  for  the  further  study  of  the  curriculum  groups  of  high 
school  subjects  and  activities  are  offered  which  seem  to  meet, 
partially  at  least,  the  requirements  of  the  types  of  life  contacts 
represented  in  the  rural  community  and  the  corresponding  objec- 
tives of  the  rural  high  school.  The  subjects  suggested  are  also 
grouped  as  predominantly  integrating  or  differentiating  in  their 
nature.  These  groups  are  not  to  be  thought  of  as  inclusive,  nor  is 
it  assumed  that  the  present  subject  matter  content  is  the  best  that 
is  available. 


175 


I.  High  school  subjects  predominantly  integrating  in  character: 

A.  English 

1.  English  and  American  literature  (including  current  litera- 
ture in  books  and  magazines). 

2.  English  language  (oral  and  written  expression). 

B.  Social  Science 

1.  American  history  and  modern  European  history. 

2.  Community  civics  leading  to  State  and  national  govern- 
ment. 

3.  Economics  and  sociology. 

4.  The  study  of  occupations  and  readings  about  vocations. 

5.  Current  events. 

C.  Natural  Science 

1.  General  science. 

2.  Hygiene,  sanitation,  etc. 

3.  General  biology,  civic  biology,  botany. 

4.  Physics  and  chemistry. 

D.  Art 

1.  Music. 

2.  Drawing. 

3.  Dramatics. 

E.  General  School  Activities 

(Assemblies,  clubs,  athletics,  and  self-government  organiza- 
tions as  an  integral  part  of  the  curriculum). 

II.  Specializing  and  differentiating  material : 

A.  Greater  intensity  for  individual  pupils  or  groups  of  pupils  in 
the  study  of  selected  materials  in  (I)  in  accordance  with 
pupil's  life  purposes  and  interests  or  both. 

B.  Eoreign  languages  and  literatures  (when  not  made  a  general 
requirement). 

C.  Prevocational  materials,  such  as:  various  types  of  shop  work, 
clerical  and  commercial  subjects,  agriculture,  home  economics, 
etc. 

D.  Vocational  subjects,  such  as  dairy  farming,  fruit  growing, 
machine  shop,  printing,  carpentry,  etc. 

E.  Subjects  (definitely  selected  and  organized  in  relation  to  the 

176 


vocation  being  prepared  for),  such  as  mechanical  drawing, 
the  various  types  of  applied  mathematics,  applied  chemistry, 
applied  botany,  commercial  law,  etc. 

It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  indicate  in  some  detail  the  inte- 
grating values  of  certain  subject  groups.  For  this  purpose  English 
and  the  social  sciences  are  briefly  considered. 

English  is  an  integrating  subject  in  the  high  school  primarily 
because  it  is  the  vernacular  of  the  nation,  its  medium  of  communica- 
tion and  thought.  Through  his  command  of  the  English  language 
the  individual  has  the  key  to  the  appreciation  and  understanding  of 
national  life.  Through  written  and  oral  composition  in  English 
classes  all  phases  of  school  work  and  of  community  and  national 
activity  may  be  considered.  Through  the  study  and  reading  of  the 
various  types  of  literature  of  the  past  and  present  a  knowledge  and 
appreciation  of  the  customs,  traditions,  problems  and  ideals  of 
American  life  and  of  English-speaking  peoples  may  be  acquired. 
The  experiences  of  the  pupils  are  widened  and  the  variety  of 
these  experiences  increased.  Intimate  contacts  with  great  char- 
acters and  important  events  in  the  history  of  the  country's  develop- 
ment are  made  possible  under  the  guidance  of  the  school.  The 
development  of  desirable  habits  of  reading  and  of  permanent 
interests  may  be  stimulated.  And  finally,  through  literary  and 
debating  clubs,  not  only  is  the  pupil  made  acquainted  with  valuable 
material  but  opportunities  for  the  understanding  and  practice  of 
group  action  are  easily  afforded  him. 

The  social  sciences  are  integrating  among  others,  in  the  following 
ways:  They  afford,  through  the  very  nature  of  their  content,  one  of 
the  means  for  arriving  at  an  understanding  of  group  action.  They 
are  the  key  to  the  study  of  the  evolution  of  society  and  its  institu- 
tions. They  furnish  a  direct  avenue  to  the  knowledge  and  appre- 
ciation of  the  important  social  and  civic  institutions  and  their 
functions  in  society.  Through  the  study  of  the  social  sciences 
should  come  the  understanding  of  the  nature  and  functions  of  law, 
and  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  society.  They  are  important 
means  in  leading  the  pupil  to  an  understanding  and  appreciation 
of  his  obligations  and  responsibilities,  social,  civic,  and  moral. 

12  177 


Through  their  study  and  through  the  various  activities  of  the  school 
and  of  the  community  in  which  the  high  school  pupil  participates, 
they  should  lead  to  the  development  of  abilities,  attitudes  and  ideals 
of  group  action  and  social  service.  Through  the  study  of  occupa- 
tions and  their  characteristics  and  place  in  social  welfare,  the  pupil 
may  be  given  an  insight  into  the  interdependence  and  relationship 
of  the  various  phases  of  human  endeavor.  Through  the  assigned 
and  voluntary  readings  and  discussions  of  current  problems  he  may 
become  acquainted  with  many  types  of  social  and  civic  questions 
of  modern  life. 

The  philosophy  of  public  secondary  education  in  a  democracy 
demands  that  the  public  high  school  should  serve  the  needs  of  all 
persons  of  secondary  school  age  who  have  completed  the  work  of 
the  elementary  school.  It  should  organize  and  direct  its  work 
toward  developing  individuals  efficient  in  the  activities  of  the  life 
of  today.  It  should  organize  its  curricula  to  the  end  of  giving  the 
secondary  school  pupil  the  knowledge,  habits,  abilities,  attitudes 
and  ideals  most  effective  in  making  the  life  contacts  of  today.  It 
should  not  set  up  standards  of  scholarship,  nor  require  of  all  pupils 
the  study  of  subjects  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  only  a  minority 
or  encouraging  the  elimination  of  large  numbers  of  individuals  who 
might  be  helped  by  all  or  a  part  of  secondary  education.  Equal 
educational  opportunities  in  secondary  education  are  not  given  by 
requiring  from  all  pupils  a  mastery  of  the  same  subjects.  The 
content  of  high  school  curricula  and  the  standards  of  achievement 
set  up  should  be  determined  with  direct  reference  to  the  maturity, 
abilities,  and  life  purposes  of  the  secondary  school  pupil,  and  to  the 
existing  social  needs. 

Every  year  of  high  school  work  should  be  determined  primarily 
with  reference  to  its  values  as  an  educational  unit.  The  academic 
work  of  the  rural  high  school  should  in  the  main  be  liberalizing  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word  and  particularly  so  in  the  first  two  years. 
Less  than  half  its  pupils  ever  reach  the  third  year.  This  fact 
indicates  that  if  the  rural  high  school  is  to  give  the  most  effective 
kind  of  education  for  all  concerned,  the  first  two  years  of  the  curric- 
ulum should  be  made  up  largely  of  subjects  of  significant  value  in 
making  the  life  contacts  of  today.     The  work  should  be  as  broad 

178 


and  flexible  as  the  resources  of  the  school  will  permit.  As  a  means 
it  should  afford  as  many  opportunities  as  possible  for  the  acquire- 
ment of  knowledge,  habits,  abilities,  attitudes  and  ideals  of  im- 
mediate value.  Thus  it  would  be  genuinely  liberalizing  in  its 
training. 

At  the  present  time  the  subjects  offered  and  required,  particularly 
in  the  first  two  years,  are  subjects  possessing  little  value  to  the 
pupil  who  does  not  complete  a  high  school  course  and  probably 
little  of  value  also  to  the  pupil  who  finishes  high  school  but  does  not 
go  to  college.  In  general  it  seems  that  the  rural  high  school  would 
more  nearly  meet  the  objectives  of  secondary  education  if  its 
curricula  were  organized  with  the  strictly  college  preparatory  sub- 
jects coming  mainly  in  the  last  two  years  of  the  course.  This 
would  make  it  possible  to  introduce  into  the  early  years  of  the 
school  subjects  having  direct  bearing  upon  the  contacts  of  modern 
life. 

An  organization  of  curricula  for  rural  high  schools  extending 
over  a  period  of  six  years  on  a  two  cycle  plan  in  which  the  work  of 
the  first  three  years  would  be  determined  in  the  light  of  pupil  and 
community  needs  without  reference  to  college  preparation  would 
be  highly  desirable.  This  would  make  possible  in  the  first  three 
years  the  emphasis  of  objectives  largely  neglected  in  the  rural  high 
school  at  present,  especially  in  the  discovery  of  the  pupil's  interests 
and  abilities  and  in  guiding  him  in  the  making  of  his  plans  for  the 
future.  Through  increased  emphasis  upon  phases  of  social  and 
natural  science  and  other  subjects  of  large  content  values,  and  less 
emphasis  upon  abstract  mathematics  and  foreign  language,  the 
needs  of  the  larger  proportion  of  pupils  would  probably  be  more 
directly  met  than  at  present. 

From  the  standpoint  of  organization  the  curriculum  should 
gradually  become  differentiated  into  two  or  more  fairly  distinct 
curricula  in  the  last  three-year  cycle.  Or  under  the  regular  four- 
year  type  of  school  in  the  second  year.  Each  of  these  curricula 
should  be  built  about  a  special  core  of  subjects  designed  to  meet 
directly  the  needs  of  major  groups  of  pupils.  In  addition  each 
curriculum  should  contain  certain  subjects  closely  related  to  the 
core;  certain  subjects,  as  English  and  the  social  sciences,  regarded 

179 


as  necessary  by  society  in  all  secondary  school  curricula;  and  cer- 
tain subjects  of  worthwhile  content  values  affording  a  margin  of 
free  electives,  as  literature,  art,  and  music. 

Generally  speaking,  all  rural  high  schools  should  strive  toward  the 
attainment  of  all  objectives  of  secondary  education.  The  size  of  the 
school,  the  limitations  as  to  teaching  force  and  equipment,  however, 
may  make  the  attainment  of  certain  objectives  uneconomical  for 
every  school.  Further  study  of  the  rural  high  school  should  be  made 
as  to  the  possibility  and  advisability  of  groups  of  neighboring  high 
schools  cooperating  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  curriculum 
offerings  as  a  group.  It  might  be  economical  for  only  one  school  in  a 
group  to  offer  a  certain  academic  subject  or  a  vocational  curriculum 
desired  by  only  a  small  number  of  pupils  in  each  school,  and  for  the 
other  schools  to  send  their  pupils  desiring  such  work  to  this  school. 
If  certain  schools  should  offer  special  lines  of  work  not  given 
by  other  neighboring  schools,  greater  educational  opportunities 
would  be  afforded  all  high  school  pupils  attending  any  one  of  the 
schools. 

In  the  rural  high  school  it  would  seem  desirable  that  an  advanced 
course  in  American  history  should  be  offered  at  least  as  early  as 
the  third  year  of  the  course.  Restricting  it  to  the  fourth  year  means 
that  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  pupils  study  American  history  in 
high  school.  While  some  of  the  problems  of  economics  and  sociology 
can  be  touched  upon  in  the  study  of  civics,  which  is  usually  taught 
in  the  first  or  second  year,  there  is  needed  in  the  rural  high  school  a 
course  in  the  phases  of  economics  and  sociology  most  closely  related 
to  the  more  common  life  contacts.  Because  of  the  narrowness  of  the 
rural  high  school  pupil's  contacts  with  occupations  it  is  especially 
desirable  that  he  have  an  opportunity  to  broaden  and  deepen  his 
knowledge  of  occupational  opportunities. 

Section   3. — General   Summary,  with   Suggestions  for   the 
Improvement  of  the  Curriculum  of  the  Rural  High  School 

The  study  of  the  curriculum  of  the  rural  high  school  from  various 
angles  and  the  observation  of  high  school  teaching  tend  to  em- 
phasize a  small  number  of  outstanding  characteristics  as  to  its  na- 
ture and  content. 

1 80 


1.  The  work  of  the  rural  high  school  is  restricted  in  the  main  to 
the  older,  more  formal  subjects  of  study.  The  content  of  its  curricu- 
lum and  the  standards  set  up  are  still  based  largely  upon  preparation 
for  college. 

2.  The  aims  and  objectives  for  the  program  of  studies  as  a  whole 
and  for  the  separate  subjects  are  vague  and  remote,  except  that  the 
passing  of  the  Regents  examinations  is  an  end  prominent  in  the 
teaching  of  every  academic  subject  in  the  rural  high  schools. 

3.  The  instruction  in  the  subjects  offered  is  formal  and  bookish, 
being  unduly  limited  to  a  single  text-book  for  each  course. 

4.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  toward  a  slavish  following  of  the 
State  syllabi  resulting  in  an  undue  uniformity  of  subject  matter  with 
a  consequent  neglect  of  possible  local  adaptations,  this  condition 
being  aggravated  by  a  system  of  uniform  State  examinations. 

5.  There  is  too  much  attention  given  to  preparation  for  examina- 
tions resulting  in  general  in  overemphasis  of  mechanical  memorizing 
and  underemphasis  of  the  more  vital  elements  of  genuine  intellectual 
development. 

6.  In  general  there  is  a  lack  of  recognition  of  the  educational 
values  of  extra-class-room  activities. 

7.  Finally,  as  indicated  by  the  percentage  of  failures  in  all  aca- 
demic subjects  in  the  rural  high  school,  neither  the  subject  matter 
nor  the  standards  of  achievement  seem  to  be  suited  to  the  maturity, 
abilities,  and  interests  of  rural  high  school  pupils. 

Recommendations 

In  accordance  with  the  preceding  discussion  and  upon  the  basis 
of  the  results  of  the  study  of  rural  high  school  instruction  and  of  the 
curricula  from  various  angles,  the  following  suggestions  and  rec- 
ommendations are  made: 

Aims  and  Objectives. — One  of  the  first  needs  of  rural  secondary 
education  is  a  clear  understanding  as  to  desirable  aims  and  objec- 
tives. This  can  come  only  as  a  result  of  a  careful  study  of  the  life 
contacts  which  the  pupil  in  the  rural  high  school  will  need  to  make 
and  those  which  he  has  already  made.  As  a  step  in  this  direction  it 
is  recommended: 


1.  That  there  be  formed  a  committee1  acting  in  cooperation  with 
the  appropriate  official  in  the  State  Department  of  Education  and 
fitted  to  undertake  the  task  by  reason  of  their  interest  in  and  ac- 
quaintance with  the  problems  of  rural  secondary  education,  to  work 
toward  the  establishment  of  suitable  objectives  and  reasonable 
standards  for  the  rural  high  school.  This  committee  should  also 
devote  attention  to  the  development  of  suggested  curricula  for  rural 
high  schools  based  upon  the  objectives  set  up  as  a  result  of  a  thor- 
ough study  of  the  requirements  of  present-day  living,  particularly  in 
rural  and  village  communities.  It  should  further  seek,  directly  or 
through  subcommittees  acting  under  its  direction,  to  discover  and 
establish  specific  objectives  for  the  various  subjects  of  study  and  to 
suggest  an  effective  organization  and  arrangement  of  these  subjects 
of  study  into  curricula  suited  to  meet  the  capacities,  needs,  and 
demands  of  the  various  groups  of  pupils  in  the  rural  high  schools  of 
the  State.  It  is  further  suggested  that  the  committee  should  at  all 
times  make  use  of  the  great  body  of  men  and  women  engaged  in  the 
actual  work  of  administration,  supervision,  and  instruction  in  rural 
secondary  education  in  the  local  high  schools  and  in  the  intermediate 
school  units,  and  of  country  life  organizations,  thus  operating  to 
stimulate  a  State-wide  study  of  rural  high  school  problems. 

To  insure  the  existence  of  an  effective  type  of  rural  secondary 
education  at  all  times  in  the  future,  plans  should  be  formulated  to 
promote  in  the  State  a  continuous  scientific  study  of  the  rural  high 
school  and  its  needs.  These  plans  should  be  such  as  to  enlist  the 
services  of  the  administrative,  supervisory,  and  teaching  forces  of 
the  rural  high  schools  of  the  State  and  other  agencies  concerned  with 
the  problems  of  rural  life. 

2.  To  facilitate  and  encourage  the  adaptation  of  the  work  of  rural 
high  schools  to  the  needs  of  the  community  or  region  in  which  they 
are  situated  it  is  recommended  that  the  State  requirements  in  the 
matter  of  required  subjects  and  in  the  subject  matter  of  courses  of 
study  be  limited  to  the  minimum  essentials  necessary  for  the  realiza- 

1  This  general  committee  may  be,  if  deemed  desirable,  the  same  as  recom- 
mended for  the  study  of  the  problems  covering  the  administration  and  organiza- 
tion of  the  rural  high  school. 


tion  of  the  educational  objectives  vital  to  State  and  national  citizen- 
ship and  health. 

3.  It  is  recommended  that  all  subjects  of  high  school  grade  and 
taught  by  a  qualified  instructor  be  given  equal  recognition  toward  a 
diploma  recognized  by  the  State,  provided  (a)  that  the  pupil  meet 
the  State  requirements  as  indicated  in  the  preceding  recommenda- 
tion, and  provided  (b)  that  there  has  been  continuity  in  the  curricu- 
lum pursued  by  the  pupil. 

4.  It  is  recommended  that  State  syllabi  in  the  various  secondary 
school  subjects  be  prepared  with  attention  given  to  the  peculiar 
needs  of  the  small  high  school  as  recommended  by  the  committee 
referred  to  above,  and  that  they  be  revised  at  least  every  five  years 
in  the  light  of  the  advancements  made  in  the  interim  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  objectives  for  the  particular  subject,  in  subject  matter 
content  and  in  methods  of  presentation.  It  is  further  recommended: 

(a)  That  these  syllabi  should  offer  a  broad  outline  of  the  possible 
content  of  the  subject  based  upon  the  most  recent  developments  in 
secondary  education,  should  be  designed  to  suggest  and  guide  in  the 
formulation  of  a  course  of  study  rather  than  to  serve  as  a  course  of 
study  themselves. 

(b)  That  in  syllabi  in  which  portions  of  the  content  are  required 
in  accordance  with  (2)  there  shall  be  specifically  indicated  the  objec- 
tives to  be  met  and  suggested  units  of  subject  matter  for  the  attain- 
ment of  these  objectives,  the  remaining  portions  of  the  outline  to  be 
of  the  nature  indicated  in  (a). 

(c)  That  a  prominent  feature  of  the  syllabi  should  be  a  clear 
statement  of  accepted  principles  underlying  the  selection  and  or- 
ganization of  subject  matter,  and  the  most  approved  methods  of 
presentation  in  each  subject.  Selected  references  should  be  indi- 
cated for  the  guidance  of  the  teacher  in  his  further  study  of  the 
pedagogical  problems  of  the  subject. 

(d)  That  the  syllabi  should  contain  suggestive  lists  of  supple- 
mentary readings,  sources,  and  educational  materials  suitable  for 
pupils  of  high  school  age. 

5.  It  is  recommended  that  objectives,  curricula,  and  syllabi  for 
junior  high  schools  in  rural  communities  be  developed  by  the  State. 
In  general  these  should  observe  the  principles  suggested  for  the 

183 


development  of  objectives,  curricula,  and  syllabi  for  the  regular 
high  school.  They  should  be  suited  to  the  needs  and  maturity  of 
rural  pupils  of  12  to  15  years  of  age. 

6.  It  is  recommended  that  the  development  of  the  courses  of 
study  in  each  high  school  subject  (both  on  the  basis  of  the  junior- 
senior  high  school  plan  of  organization  and  for  the  four-year  high 
school)  for  the  rural  high  schools  of  a  particular  section  of  the  State 
be  made  (so  soon  as  the  intermediate  unit  shall  have  been  devel- 
oped) one  of  the  responsibilities  of  the  authorities  in  charge  of  the 
high  schools  of  the  intermediate  administrative  unit  in  which  the 
high  school  is  located.  This  will  make  for  courses  of  study  better 
suited  to  the  rural  high  schools  than  those  in  operation  under  the 
present  practice  of  the  State. 

7.  The  following  recommendations  are  made  with  regard  to  the 
offering  of  particular  subjects  in  the  rural  high  schools: 

(a)  Undoubtedly  the  social  science  group  is  one  of  the  most 
genuinely  liberalizing  groups  of  studies  in  the  secondary  school.  It 
burnishes  the  most  direct  means  for  teaching  citizenship.  The  pres- 
ent requirements  for  the  rural  high  schools  are,  from  the  standpoint 
of  time  given,  sufficient.  For  meeting  the  needs  of  today,  and  par- 
ticularly of  those  pupils  who  do  not  continue  their  education  beyond 
the  rural  high  school,  a  reorganization  of  the  work  in  the  social  sci- 
ences seems  desirable. 

(b)  It  is  recommended  that  the  study  of  American  history  be 
offered  to  pupils  of  the  rural  high  school  at  least  as  early  as  the 
third  year.  It  is  further  recommended  that  steps  be  taken  to  en- 
courage in  the  rural  high  schools  the  teaching  of  community  civics, 
economics,  and  sociology,  and  that  the  development  of  courses  of 
study  in  these  subjects  suited  to  the  needs  and  experience  of  rural 
high  school  boys  and  girls  be  encouraged  and  guided. 

(c)  It  is  recommended  that  there  be  developed  for  the  rural  high 
school  a  course  in  the  study  of  occupations.  It  is  believed  that  such 
a  course  would  have  significant  values  in  teaching  citizenship.  It 
should  also  serve  directly  as  a  means  of  acquainting  pupils  with  the 
opportunities  for  vocational  service,  and  serve  as  a  basis  for  guid- 
ance in  the  intelligent  choice  of  a  vocation. 

(d)  Efficient  homemaking  is  of  basic  importance  in  promoting 

184 


the  welfare  of  the  home  and  of  good  citizenship.  The  great  majority 
of  the  girls  enrolled  in  the  rural  high  schools  will  ultimately  become 
homemakers.  In  1919-20  only  11  percent  of  the  rural  high  schools 
of  New  York  offered  opportunities  for  training  in  homemaking.  The 
establishing  of  courses  in  homemaking  in  every  rural  high  school  is 
recommended.  Such  courses  should  be  enriched  and  broadened  so 
as  to  meet  in  the  fullest  possible  manner  the  home  and  community 
needs.  Credit  should  be  given  on  the  same  basis  as  for  academic 
subjects.  Emphasis  should  be  given  to  the  problem  of  getting  col- 
leges to  accept  for  entrance  the  work  in  homemaking  subjects. 

(e)  One  of  the  outstanding  needs  in  the  development  of  rural 
secondary  education  is  the  opportunity  for  vocational  training  in 
agriculture.  At  present  less  than  ten  percent  of  the  rural  high 
schools  offer  courses  in  vocational  agriculture.  It  is  recommended, 
therefore,  that  courses  in  vocational  agriculture  be  encouraged  in 
every  rural  high  school  of  the  State  where  a  sufficient  number  of 
pupils  are  interested  in  the  work. 

(/)  It  is  recommended  that  the  beginning  science  in  rural  high 
schools,  and  especially  where  there  is  the  junior  high  school  organ- 
ization, be  a  broad  introduction  to  science  designed  to  give  the 
pupil  contact  with  the  many  phases  of  science  as  it  affects  his  daily 
life  rather  than  a  detailed  acquaintance  with  a  special  field  of 
scientific  knowledge  highly  organized.  General  science  seems  best 
adapted  to  meet  these  demands.  For  the  rural  high  schools  of  New 
York,  however,  it  should  be  developed  with  definite  regard  to  the 
experience  background  of  the  rural  high  school  pupil  of  New  York 
and  with  flexibility  permitting  adaptation  to  conditions  peculiar  to 
particular  localities. 

(g)  It  is  recommended  that  less  emphasis  be  given  to  the  study  of 
foreign  languages  in  the  rural  high  schools,  and  that  all  work  in 
foreign  languages,  both  ancient  and  modern,  be  elective. 

(h)  It  is  recommended  that  intermediate  algebra,  advanced  alge- 
bra, and  trigonometry,  particularly  the  last  two,  be  discouraged  in 
the  rural  high  school,  and  that  for  pupils  not  preparing  for  college 
not  more  than  one  year  of  mathematics  be  required. 

(»)  It  is  recommended  that  the  curriculum  of  the  rural  high 
school  be  organized  in  the  first  two  years  with  the  view  to  meeting 

185 


most  effectively  the  needs  and  interests  of  all  pupils  and  that  sub- 
jects specifically  required  for  college  entrance  be  offered  in  the  last 
two  years  of  high  school. 

8.  It  is  recommended  that  a  careful  study  be  made  as  to  the 
educational  values  of  extra-class-room  activities  and  as  to  the  best 
methods  for  realizing  these  values  in  a  rural  high  school  and  that 
steps  be  taken  to  make  principals  and  teachers  acquainted  with  the 
results  of  this  study  in  the  way  of  suggestions  as  to  the  nature,  aims, 
organization  and  control  of  such  activities. 

9.  It  is  recommended  that  more  definite  guidance  be  given  rural 
high  school  principals  in  the  organization  of  their  daily  programs: 
with  the  purpose  (1)  of  increasing  the  range  of  subjects  offered  in  the 
high  school;  (2)  of  meeting  more  directly  community  needs,  and 
(3)  at  the  same  time  with  a  view  to  reducing  the  teaching  load  for 
teachers.  It  would  seem  that  these  ends  may  be  attained  through 
such  means  as  a  better  selection  of  subjects,  by  decreasing  the  pro- 
portion of  extremely  small  classes  in  subjects  appealing  to  but  a  few 
pupils,  and  by  alternation  of  classes  in  such  subjects  as  English, 
history,  third  and  fourth  year  language  and  science  and  by  begin- 
ning specific  languages  in  alternate  years. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  State  department  can  be  of  inestimable 
service  to  the  high  schools  of  the  State  by  encouraging  the  sending  to 
it  by  local  principals,  teachers  and  supervisors  of  ways  and  means 
which  they  have  used  successfully  in  meeting  their  problems  of  the 
daily  program,  curriculum  organization,  subject  matter  content, 
and  methods  of  teaching.  These  suggestions  should  then  be  re- 
turned to  the  rural  high  school  principals  and  teachers  throughout 
the  State.  It  would  seem  also  that  the  department  might  perform  a 
valuable  service  to  the  rural  high  schools  of  the  State  by  directing 
in  selected  schools  experimental  work  concerning  problems  of  or- 
ganization, curriculum  content  and  arrangement,  and  teaching 
methods. 

In  conclusion  it  would  seem  that  the  problem  of  the  rural  high 
school  in  New  York  is  to  develop  a  type  of  secondary  education 
suited  to  the  needs,  abilities,  and  life  purposes  of  rural  high  school 
pupils.  Its  dominant  aim  should  be  the  development  of  individually 
and  socially  efficient  persons  within  the  limits  of  the  secondary 

1 86 


school  and  of  the  maturity  of  pupils  of  high  school  age.  Its  work 
should  be  determined  in  the  light  of  the  possibilities  and  responsi- 
bilities of  the  public  secondary  school  as  an  institution,  rather  than 
as  an  institution,  the  work  of  which  is  primarily  preparatory  for 
higher  education. 


187 


SURVEY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE 
RURAL  SCHOOLS 

1  he  survey  was  organized  with  the  following  sections 
and  directors: 

Administration  and  Supervision.     C.  H.  Judd. 

School  Support.     Harlan  Updegraff. 

Teachers  and  Courses  of  Study.     W.  C.  Bagley. 

School  Buildings.     J.  E.  Butterworth. 

Measuring  the  Work  of  the  Schools.     M.  E.  Haggerty. 

Community  Relations.     Mabel  Carney. 

The  results  of  the  studies  conducted  by  these  directors 
and  their  associates  have  been  embodied  in  a  series  of 
reports.  The  approximate  dates  at  which  these  will  be 
available  for  distribution  are: 

Volume        I.  Rural  School  Survey  of  New  York  State. 

(Preliminary  Report)  May,  1922. 
Volume       II.  Administration  and  Supervision,  October,  1922. 

The  District  System.     Shelby. 

The  Supervisory  District.     Brooks. 

The  Community  Unit.     Works. 

Principles  of  Administration.     Bobbitt. 

The  State  System  of  Examinations.     Kruse. 

Health  Education.     Peterson. 

The  State  Schools  of  Agriculture.     Holton. 

Junior  Extension.     Holton. 

Summary  and  Recommendations.     Judd. 
Volume     III.  School  Support.     Updegraff.    August,  1922. 
Volume     IV.  Teachers    and    Teacher    Preparation.      Bagley. 
September,  1922. 

Elementary  School  Curriculum.    Brim. 

Community  Relations.    Carney. 
Volume       V.  School  Buildings.    Butterworth.    June,  1922. 
Volume      VI.  The  Educational  Product.    Haggerty.    July,  1922. 
Volume    VII.  The  Rural  High  Schools.     Ferriss.     August,  1922. 
(The  administrative  features  of  the  high  school 

were  studied  in  cooperation  with  Dr.  Judd,  while 

teachers  and  curricula  were  developed  under  the 

general  direction  of  Dr.  Bagley.) 
Volume  VIII.  Vocational  Education.    Eaton.    July,  1922. 

(Prepared  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Bagley.) 


These  volumes  may  be  obtained  at  seventy-five  cents  each,  post- 
paid, except  Volume  II,  on  Administration  and  Supervision,  which 
will  be  one  dollar.  Only  a  limited  edition  will  be  printed  and  those 
wishing  to  make  certain  of  securing  copies  may  place  their  orders  at 
any  time. 

Joint  Committee  on  Rural  Schools, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
IMIII   II  llll  "' 


AA    000  987  643     4 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH. 

CALIFORNIA 

HARY, 

LfrS  ANGELES,  CAUK 


